Humans need protein to stay healthy. Protein keeps our bodies working properly, helping to build muscles, heal injuries, and ward off illness. Traditional protein-rich foods include meat, dairy, eggs, and pulses (like beans and lentils), but protein can also come from other sources. Alternative proteins are appearing more frequently both on store shelves and in everyday conversations, leading many people to ask what these products are and how they are made. This publication describes the three main types of alternative proteins: plant-based, fermentation-derived, and cell-cultivated. It also explains how regulators oversee these new products to ensure they are safe for consumption and how these innovations aim to complement—rather than replace—conventional agriculture products to build a more resilient food supply.

"Alternative" proteins look and taste like familiar animal-based foods, such as burger patties, chicken nuggets, dairy products, fish, and eggs, but are made using alternative protein-rich ingredients. Alternative proteins can be used in place of conventional meat and seafood in traditional main courses or consumed like dairy products. Sources of alternative proteins include

• farm-grown crops, such as beans or peas;

• fermentation processes using food-safe microbes, plant-derived ingredients, and essential nutrients; and

• animal cells and cell-derived ingredients such as fat cultivated in food production facilities.

Among the three main types of alternative proteins, plant-based and fermentation-derived products are already widely available on the market (for example, plant-based burgers made from pea protein). Cell-cultivated protein products, including burgers (Figure 1), sausage (Figure 2), and salmon (Figure 3), are still emerging. Only a limited subset of such products is currently available in a select number of restaurants and retail outlets in the United States. Products available today can complement other conventional proteins to diversify the source of protein in our diets.

Figure 1. Cell-cultivated burger.

Photo by Tim van de Rijdt, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY-NC 4.0

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Figure 1. Cell-cultivated burger.

Photo by Tim van de Rijdt, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY-NC 4.0

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Figure 2. Cell-cultivated sausage with mashed potatoes and peas.

Photo by Ivy Farm, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY 4.0

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Figure 2. Cell-cultivated sausage with mashed potatoes and peas.

Photo by Ivy Farm, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY 4.0

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Figure 3. Cell-cultivated salmon on rye toast topped with onions, capers, and dill.

Photo by Arye Elfenbein, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY 4.0

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Figure 3. Cell-cultivated salmon on rye toast topped with onions, capers, and dill.

Photo by Arye Elfenbein, GFI's Cultivated Meat Image Library.  CC BY 4.0

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Plants: Plant-based proteins are derived from plants. They include the more "traditional" plant-based proteins (like beans, lentils, and tofu) and the more novel "alternative" proteins that are extracted from crops like soybeans, yellow peas, wheat, and lentils but mimic the look and taste of conventional protein products.

Microorganisms: Fermentation-based proteins are produced using microbes—such as fungi (for example, yeast) or bacteria—that are food-safe. One example of such fermentation processes is precision fermentation, which uses food-safe microbes to produce specific ingredients found in plants or animal products, such as milk proteins like whey. Precision fermentation is not a new technology; it has been used for decades to produce, for example, rennet for making cheese, vitamin B12 used in supplements, and insulin used as a drug for people with diabetes.

Animal cells: Cell-cultivated (or cell-cultured) protein products are made from real animal cells or ingredients such as fat. These cells are grown in a controlled environment in food production facilities regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). These facilities use equipment similar to the kinds used for producing other foods and beverages, such as beer. The nutrient broth used to grow cells contains plant-based ingredients and essential nutrients, including salts, minerals, and proteins required for cell metabolism. Furthermore, crops such as soy, pea, and wheat are typically used as ingredients in cell-cultivated meat products to enhance texture, maximize nutrition, and improve taste and affordability.

The world has more than 8 billion people and is continuing to grow in population (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division 2024). We need to make sure that our food systems can supply enough affordable, nutritious food to feed a growing population. Conventional agricultural producers are facing increased challenges to meet growing demands for meat and seafood due to limited land, water, and nutrient resources, among other constraints (Cole et al. 2018). Thus, alternative sources of protein can be an important part of a more diversified global food system, which addresses increased food and nutritional security concerns.

Meanwhile, many people want food choices that can help protect the environment. Plant-based, fermentation-derived, and cell-cultivated proteins may constitute an option that reduces land use, water consumption, agricultural fertilizer consumption (including phosphorus and nitrogen), and greenhouse gas emissions (Sinke et al. 2023; Rubio et al. 2020; Eastham and Leman 2024; Hilgendorf et al. 2024). Some products contain meat combined with alternative proteins, for example, minced beef blended with soy protein.

From a dietary perspective, nonanimal proteins can be a part of a healthy diet. Plant-based proteins often have nutrient-dense or healthful characteristics, such as providing fiber, being cholesterol-free, and having less saturated fat than conventional meat (Williams et al. 2025). Some people—like vegetarians and vegans—avoid meat or other animal products for various reasons. Others (such as flexitarians) may want to incorporate more plant-based meals into their diet to complement conventional meat and protein choices. Alternative proteins are another option to help these consumers meet their protein needs while aligning with their personal beliefs and preferences.

All foods sold in the United States, including alternative proteins, must meet safety standards (U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2024). Plant-based and fermentation-derived proteins are overseen by the FDA, and their origin must be disclosed on product labels. As with all foods, their labels are required to indicate if they contain allergens like soy or wheat. Cell-cultivated meat and poultry products are regulated by the FDA and USDA under a joint regulatory framework, and cell-cultivated seafood products are regulated by the FDA. Cell-cultivated proteins go through a rigorous regulatory process to ensure safety, accurate labeling, and consumer transparency (U.S. Department of Agriculture 2023).

A more diverse and locally produced food supply boosts the nation's resilience to disruptions—whether from climate events, trade disruptions, or geopolitical tensions. The U.S. is a global leader in developing alternative proteins, as evidenced by substantial private and public investments and a range of companies (including many start-ups) working in this sector (Battle et al. 2025a). The development of alternative proteins has the potential to enhance economic competitiveness and food resiliency in the U.S. by fostering innovation and creating jobs. The bipartisan National Security Commission on Emerging Biotechnology warned that the U.S. risks falling behind without a strong national strategy in biotechnology, which includes the development of alternative proteins (National Security Commission on Emerging Biotechnology 2025). Advancing alternative proteins alongside promoting conventional agriculture can help build a stronger, more resilient food system (Shirwaiker et al. 2024). Diversifying protein supply chains can also diversify markets for U.S. farmers, especially where processors source domestic inputs and create new regional demand for food-grade crops.

Consumers should be aware of the potential benefits and uncertainties associated with alternative proteins. As previously described, alternative proteins may offer several benefits related to nutrition, environmental sustainability, and consumer preferences. Many safe, nutritious alternative protein products are already available in supermarkets. Meanwhile, research and policy associated with alternative proteins continue to advance, and ongoing studies will help deepen our understanding of long-term nutritional impacts.

Some people have expressed concerns about the degree to which alternative proteins are processed or whether they are considered ultra-processed foods—foods that often contain high amounts of salt, fat, or added sugar and food additives (Nature 2025). Similar to conventional meat products, there is considerable variation in the nutritional composition of different alternative protein products (El Sadig and Wu 2024). Like conventional meat, cell-cultivated meat can be used as an ingredient in ultra-processed foods. Some plant-based protein products undergo processing to remove undesirable flavors and anti-nutrients, for example, while others may be more extensively processed and may contain high amounts of sodium or additives (El Sadig and Wu 2024). In general, however, these products provide fiber, contain no cholesterol, and have lower saturated fat levels compared to conventional meat and foods that have typically been described as ultra-processed (Williams et al. 2025).

While there is growing evidence of the environmental benefits of alternative proteins, more studies are needed to confirm the impacts of some of these products, many of which are still in early stages of development (Mazac et al. 2023; Sinke et al. 2023). Finally, while growing meat from cells is still relatively expensive, ongoing innovations in manufacturing technology are steadily paving the way toward more affordable products.

Farmers are essential to the alternative protein sector because many inputs come directly from agriculture, including food-grade crops used in plant-based foods and crop-derived ingredients used in fermentation and cell-cultivated meat processes. Many of the commercialized novel plant-based products use protein isolates, which can increase demand for regional processing like splitting and milling and for consistent crop traits like protein content, function quality, and minimal off-flavors (Etzbach et al. 2024; Flory et al. 2023; Schulp et al. 2024). Cell-cultivated meat supply chains also still rely on row crops and crop-derived ingredients, creating potential new demand streams alongside traditional feed and food production (Myers et al. 2023). Both conventional and alternative protein sources may contribute to strengthening national and global food security and economic development.

Alternative proteins are not expected to replace livestock. They are more likely to complement existing agriculture by expanding the number of protein markets available to consumers and the mix of ingredients demanded from U.S. farms, as alternative protein processes use agricultural crops like corn and soybeans grown in the U.S. (Figure 4).

Furthermore, technologies used in alternative proteins may offer new opportunities for utilizing agricultural side-streams like straw, leading to new revenue streams (Charteris and Le Coutre 2025; Zhang et al. 2024). At the same time, impacts will vary by region and crop, and additional research is needed to understand long-term effects on agricultural communities. Open and ongoing dialogues between farmers, researchers, Extension personnel, policymakers, industry representatives, and other stakeholders will help ensure that innovation respects agricultural heritage while creating practical markets that benefit farmers (Figure 5).

Figure 4. Soybean plants are sources for both traditional and alternative consumer protein products.

Photo by istockphoto.com/Fotokostic.

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Figure 4. Soybean plants are sources for both traditional and alternative consumer protein products.

Photo by istockphoto.com/Fotokostic.

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Figure 5. Cooperation between growers, researchers, policymakers, and industry representatives are key to the successful use of traditional crops like corn in the alternative protein market.

Photo by iStockphoto.com/Simon Skafar.

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Figure 5. Cooperation between growers, researchers, policymakers, and industry representatives are key to the successful use of traditional crops like corn in the alternative protein market.

Photo by iStockphoto.com/Simon Skafar.

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Alternative proteins are not expected to replace traditional livestock products in the food supply. Rather, they may expand the number and type of food proteins available for consumers. Further, global meat consumption is expected to continue to increase in the coming years and decades (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2018). Alternative proteins can supplement the supply chain and help fill the gap in meeting the growing demand for protein. Livestock production will continue to be vital to the food supply, while alternative protein production is expected to lead to new jobs being created in the U.S. to build, operate, manage, and grow this industry.

Currently, alternative proteins hold a small market share compared to conventional animal protein products. For plant-based protein, the retail market was estimated to account for 1.7% of total retail packaged meat dollar sales in the U.S. in 2024 (Battle et al. 2025b). About 80% of total protein for U.S. consumers comes from animal and dairy sources (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2022). About 20% of U.S. consumers have purchased plant-based alternative meat, with 12% buying it multiple times (Neuhofer and Lusk 2022). Furthermore, cell-cultivated meat is still in the early days of development. Some estimates suggest that by 2030, cell-cultivated meat could supply 0.5% of the world’s meat (Brennan et al. 2021), while other estimates suggest a considerably lower proportion (Dullaghan and Linch 2022; Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services et al. 2024). Looking forward, as global demand for protein continues to rise, both traditional livestock production and alternative proteins will play important complementary roles in our food system.

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This work is supported by the USDA NIFA Hatch Project, project award no. 7009573, from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture.

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