Table of Contents
Beetles
Bees, Wasps, and Ants
True Bugs
Caterpillars
Flies and Crickets
Other Arthropods
Pollinators
Monitoring Methods
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Insects of all kinds play an active role in a turfgrass environment. Some are considered pests and may cause direct or secondary damage to turfgrass through feeding, egg-laying and moving behaviors. Others are considered beneficial and contribute to our ecosystem as pollinators or pest predators. Some insects, like native ant species, are considered both beneficial and nuisance insects—serving as predators of pest insects while also disrupting plant growth and ground cover through tunneling and mounding.
To support a healthy, functioning ecosystem, it is important to be able to identify insects within a landscape and determine whether or not they will cause damage. Correct identification of insects is the most important step in an integrated pest management (IPM) approach, as it determines if control is necessary. Monitoring for insect activity throughout a growing season can help managers assess timing for control measures. This field guide and linked resources can be used to assist with basic insect identification and provide information on sampling methods and control recommendations. When there are only a few insect pests in a landscape, management may not be necessary. Control products should be applied only when pest numbers exceed a threshold for treatment or when damage is considerable. Assessing the need for control prior to application will ensure optimal management of insect pests while minimizing impact on beneficial insect populations. Keeping our beneficial insects in mind, please note that where an asterisk appears in the text next to a specified chemical, refer to Pollinator Best Management Practices (BMPs) in Turfgrass for special precautions for protecting pollinators.
Annual Bluegrass Weevils
Description: Adult annual bluegrass weevils, Listronotus maculicollis, are dark-brown or black and about 1⁄8 inch long, with a curved snout and grayish-yellow hairs and scales on the thorax and hind wings (Figure 1a). They resemble billbugs but are about 1⁄3 of their size, with a shorter, stouter snout and antennae that are attached to the tip of the snout rather than the base. Larvae are legless, cream colored with red-brown head capsules, and 1⁄25 to 1⁄6 inch long.
Biology: Adult activity begins in late March to early April, when females begin to lay eggs in leaf sheaths (two or three at a time), often in short-mown turf. Larvae emerge in early to mid-April, depending on location, and develop through five instars and a pupal stage lasting about five to seven days each. The first peaks in adult activity usually occur in early to mid-May. The weevils quickly cycle through three generations, and most activity ceases by October.
Damage: Annual bluegrass weevils have historically been a destructive pest in the northeastern United States. They have continued to spread south and west and have become a pest insect in western North Carolina, primarily in annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass but also perennial ryegrass. Adults chew tiny notches in grass blades, and larvae feed within the grass stem, causing small, yellow spots on short-mown turf (Figure 1b). Early damage begins in mid-May. More significant damage may be observed in early to mid-July and early to mid-August due to overlapping generations.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1) (recommended); pitfall traps (#3); night collecting (#6); vacuum sampling (#12).
Biological Control: The nematode Steinernema carpocapsae may reduce populations by nearly 50 percent; Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) can reduce larval populations by 50 to 65 percent; and spinosad can be very effective against larvae when used at a high rate.
Chemical Control: Pyrethroids are effective at controlling adults, but frequent use has led to extreme resistance issues in some parts of North Carolina (all insecticides should be used in a rotational strategy to avoid selecting for resistant individuals). Diamides are effective for controlling larvae.
Figure 1a. Adult annual bluegrass weevil.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 1b. Turf damage from annual bluegrass weevils.
T. Billeisen (NC State University)
Annual Bluegrass Weevil Treatment Calendar
Wireworms
Description: Wireworms (Figure 2a) are the larvae of click beetles, which are elongate, slender insects that vary in color and size, depending on species. Adults are 1/4 to 2 inches in length and appear somewhat flattened. When placed on their backs, they can flip their bodies in the air by snapping their thorax, which often produces a clicking sound. Wireworms have hard, red-orange bodies that are darker at the anterior and posterior ends. They are 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches long.
Biology: Larvae overwinter in the soil and pupate in early to mid-spring. Adult beetles appear in late spring and produce several generations throughout the growing season.
Damage: Click beetle adults are not known to cause damage in turfgrass. Their larvae, however, are pests of agricultural crops and also feed on seeds, seedlings, and crowns of turf. Wireworm damage appears as yellow patches in turf (Figure 2b), typically in freshly seeded or sodded areas.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soil sampling (#5). Sample on warm days to increase the likelihood of finding larvae close to the soil surface.
Cultural Control: Maintain healthy turfgrass to minimize plant stress. Inputs that encourage plant growth can improve the appearance of turf canopy and reduce the chance of observing symptomatic wireworm damage.
Chemical Control: Most insecticides for wireworm control are approved for agricultural use only. Chemical control is rarely necessary in turfgrass, but for severe infestations, you can use pyrethroids to control wireworm populations.
Figure 2a. Wireworms.
R. Brandenburg (NC State University)
Figure 2b. Turf damaged by wireworms.
R. Brandenburg (NC State University)
Green June Beetle Grubs
Description: Green June beetle grubs (Cotinis nitida) are the larval form of Green June beetles, which are about 1-inch-long metallic-green insects with gold-yellow body margins (Figure 3a). Larvae are similar to white grubs of other scarab beetle species but are much larger (1 to 2 inches long) and do not curl into the typical C shape.
Biology: Adult beetles are active in midsummer and fly for a few weeks, laying eggs, before disappearing. Eggs hatch within two weeks, and the larvae feed on organic matter in the soil. Green June beetles overwinter as larvae and pupate in late spring, emerging as adults in a few weeks.
Damage: Feeding by grubs below the soil surface can cause the turf to yellow and thin, similar to damage caused by other white grub species. Green June beetle grubs create quarter-size emergence holes (Figure 3b) when they exit the soil at night.
Control
Monitoring Methods: Soil sampling (#5) and tug test (#11). Watch for adult flight in summer and scout for larval emergence holes in early fall.
Biological Control: Scoliid wasps are natural enemies of white grubs.
Chemical Control: Timing of application is critical for effective control. For preventive control, apply neonicotinoids* or diamides before eggs are laid. For curative control, apply contact insecticides 24 to 72 hours after a significant rainfall event between August and September, when grubs are actively feeding near the soil surface.
Figure 3a. Green June beetle adult.
B. Royals (NC State University)
Figure 3b. Emergence holes of green June beetle grubs in turf.
B. Royals (NC State University)
Green June Beetles Treatment Calendar
Hunting Billbugs
Description: Hunting billbug adults (Figure 4a) are 1/2 inch long and black, charcoal-gray, or brownish in color. They have a smooth, nonpunctuated Y-shaped area behind the head, and parenthesis-like curved markings on the sides of the pronotum (area behind the head). Adults are most prevalent in spring but can also be found in the fall. Larvae are legless and white, with a brown head capsule, and are most common from May to October.
Biology: When temperatures increase in spring, adults emerge from overwintering sites to feed and mate. They are active at night and will crawl across the turf surface unless disturbed by direct light.
Damage: Larvae feed on the crowns, roots, and stolons of turfgrass. Damage is most serious in roots, but some young larvae also damage the leaf or shoot. Hunting billbugs cause the worst injury in zoysiagrass, but they also damage bermudagrass, St. Augustinegrass, and centipedegrass. Damage usually appears as yellow spots about 2 inches in diameter that gradually grow larger (Figure 4b).
Control
Monitoring Method: Soil sampling (#5). Cut three sides around a 1-square-foot section of sod about 2 inches deep, and peel the layer back to see if the roots have been chewed off. Sift soil to look for larvae. Check multiple sites in the turf. Soap flush (#1), pitfall traps (#3), night collecting (#6), and tug test (#11).
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides in spring when adults emerge from their overwintering sites before they lay eggs. Treat no later than three weeks after adults become active. Adults can be treated with pyrethroids and combination products (containing more than one active ingredient); larvae can be treated with neonicotinoids* and diamides.
Figure 4a. Hunting billbug.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Figure 4b. Spreading yellow patches due to hunting billbug damage.
T. Billeisen (NC State University)
Hunting Billbugs Treatment Calendar
Japanese Beetles
Description: Japanese beetles (Figure 5a) are 1/2 inch long and shiny, metallic green with coppery-brown wing covers. Small tufts of white hairs line the sides of the abdomen. Grubs are white, though the end of the abdomen is dark gray (Figure 5b); they are C-shaped with orange-brown head capsules and three pairs of legs (unlike weevil larvae, which are legless) and grow to about 1 inch long before developing into adults.
Biology: Although adults do not directly feed on turfgrass, they are the most mobile and recognizable life stage and can alert homeowners to a potential grub infestation. Adults emerge in mid-May in North Carolina and feed on foliage, flowers, and fruits; they often cluster together in large groups (Figure 5c). Eggs are laid 2 to 4 inches in the soil and hatch in 10 to 14 days.
Damage: Japanese beetles have more than 300 host plants. Grubs feed on the roots of grasses. Damage usually appears as large, patchy, yellow areas in the turf that expand over time.
Control
Monitoring Method: Pheromone traps (#2). Rely on traps as a monitoring tool (as opposed to control) to determine the window of application for grub control. Place traps far away from any potential host plants.
Cultural Control: Due to their tendency to cluster, you can shake an infested plant to dislodge Japanese beetles each morning. To prevent reinfestation, knock them into soapy water. Physically removing them may reduce accumulation of beetles. You can protect flowers and plants adjacent to turfgrass with cheesecloth or other fine-mesh material.
Biological Control: Spinosad and neem-based products are less effective than chemicals but are preferred by some gardeners seeking biological control.
Chemical Control: Preventive recommendations for grub control are to apply larval insecticides to turf when adult flight is at its peak (when traps are full of adult beetles). Make curative applications when the first symptoms of damage are evident. For home use, products containing carbaryl and imidacloprid* are good choices for controlling adult populations. Many lawn and garden multi-insect products contain pyrethrins, which may be effective.
Figure 5a. Japanese beetle.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 5b. Japanese beetle grub.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Figure 5c. Japanese beetles.
T. Billeisen (NC State University)
Japanese Beetles Treatment Calendar
Sugarcane Beetles
Description: Sugarcane beetles, Euetheola rugiceps (LeConte), are dull black and about 3/5 inch long, with distinct grooves extending along the length of the abdomen (Figure 6). Larvae are typical C-shaped white grubs with red-orange head capsules.
Biology: Early-season adult flight occurs in April and May. Females lay up to three eggs per day in the soil. Eggs hatch in eight to ten days, and larvae are fully grown in about two months. Larvae are present in the soil from May to August, and the next generation of adults begins emerging in September. The fall population is typically much smaller than spring populations; adult flight continues through November.
Damage: Sugarcane beetles have become a sporadic but serious pest of warm-season managed turfgrass and pasture grasses. Unlike other white grubs, sugarcane beetles damage turfgrass in their larval and adult stages. Turfgrass injury can be seen as early as May. Adults cause direct damage to the turfgrass from spring to fall by attacking the stem at the soil surface; they may also cause indirect damage to turfgrass when tunneling through soil during the day. In mid- to late summer, larvae feed on decaying plant matter in soil, but may incidentally feed on grass roots, weakening turf if populations are high.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soil sampling (#5), night collecting (#6), and light traps (#7).
Cultural Control: Appropriate fertilizer and infrequent, deep irrigation will result in a vigorous turf stand that is more tolerant of insect pests, which may alleviate some damage issues. Eliminating unnecessary nighttime light sources that may attract adult beetles to turf may also be beneficial.
Biological Control: Parasitic flies and wasps kill adult beetles. Foraging thief ants feed on eggs in soil, and predation by red imported fire ants may reduce egg and larval populations. Adult beetles are also susceptible to the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and a number of predatory mites.
Chemical Control: Effective chemical control for sugarcane beetles requires a different approach compared to that of other scarabs, in which early larval instars are targeted. Because sugarcane beetles spend the majority of their life cycle as adults, management plans for effective control in North Carolina target adults. Generally, pyrethroids and combination products are successful at suppressing sugarcane beetles, but timing of application is more important than the product used. When possible, target spring-flying adults; this population is larger, causes significantly more damage than other scarab beetles, and is more susceptible to pesticides.
Figure 6. Adult sugarcane beetle.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Sugarcane Beetles Treatment Calendar
White Grubs
Description: White grubs are the larvae of scarab beetles. They are cream colored with a gray abdomen, red-brown head, and six legs under the body just behind the head (Figure 7a). Mature are 1/4 to 2 inches long, depending on the species. Most white grubs are C-shaped at rest; the more-elongate green June beetle larva is an exception.
Biology: Adults emerge in May or June, depending on the species. In morning hours, female beetles deposit 15 to 20 eggs at a time 1 to 8 inches deep in the soil. Eggs hatch in 10 to 14 days. Larvae move deeper into the soil in fall to overwinter, resuming feeding on roots in spring. This cycle may repeat several times until larvae mature into adults over one to four years, depending on the species.
Damage: In North Carolina, the major species of concern are Japanese beetles, May or June beetles, green June beetles, and southern and northern masked chafers. Most damage occurs as larvae move toward the surface to feed on plant roots. With heavy infestations, grass may lift from the soil after grubs feed on roots (Figure 7b). Small infestations may cause turf to appear thin or unhealthy. Green June beetle larvae may create mounds of dirt on the surface after they emerge at night.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soil sampling (#5) and tug test (#11). Grubs may be concentrated in localized areas, so sample in several areas of the turf. Night collecting (#6) and light traps (#7).
Biological Control: Scoliid wasps in the landscape are natural enemies of white grubs. Products labeled “milky spore” contain a bacterium (Bacillus popilliae) that is useful in controlling Japanese beetle grubs.
Chemical Control: Timing of application is critical for effective control. For preventive control, apply neonicotinoids* or diamides before eggs are laid. For curative control, apply contact insecticides 24 to 72 hours after a significant rainfall event between August and October and again in April to early May, when grubs are actively feeding near the soil surface.
7a. White grub.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
7b. White grubs on soil surface after a section of turfgrass has been removed.
S. Milla-Lewis (NC State University)
White Grubs Treatment Calendar
Ground-Nesting Bees
Description: Ground-nesting bees (Figure 8a) are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long and may be blue, green, copper, or metallic reddish-brown, depending on the species. They are mostly solitary species that dig burrows in the ground, sometimes leaving small mounds of soil with a small hole in the center (Figure 8b), particularly in sandy soil. They also may tunnel through wood. Most are harmless to humans, but they may be difficult to distinguish from species that are more aggressive.
Biology: Adult bees generally become active in mid- to late spring. Females excavate burrows in the soil that are usually at least 6 inches long. The bees generally prefer warm, dry areas with sun exposure and well-drained soil with little organic matter. They tend to build more nests in areas with sparse vegetation.
Damage: When bees are numerous, there may be many holes close together. As such, they are often misidentified as nuisance ant colonies due to mounds of excavated soil on the turf surface. Damage is usually minimal. Control is rarely necessary unless bees are numerous and perceived as a danger or annoyance.
Control
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10).
Cultural Control: To discourage adult nesting, apply inputs to encourage turf growth and make the turf environment less hospitable to females. Irrigate regularly, fertilize appropriately and according to recommended schedules, and use ground covers or heavy mulches in areas of bare soil. Where nests are present, soil tilling may partially destroy tunnels, but establishing dense turf is the best means of discouraging further nesting.
Chemical Control: Chemical control is almost never necessary and not recommended.
Figure 8a. Ground-nesting bee.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 8b. Burrow holes of ground-nesting bees.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Ground Nesting Bees Treatement Calendar
Cicada Killer Wasps
Description: Cicada killer wasps, Sphecius speciosus (Figure 9a and Figure 9b), occur throughout the eastern United States and Mexico in urban and suburban areas. The cicada killer is the largest solitary wasp species (1 to 2 inches long) in North Carolina. It has a black abdomen with three ornate yellow bands, a rusty to dark-brown head and thorax, and transparent russet wings.
Biology: Cicada killer wasps are often found in groups, as they prefer nesting in well-drained, light-textured soils in full sunlight near trees where cicadas are located. They are beneficial because they prey on herbivorous dog-day cicadas. Over her lifetime, one female can gather 100 or more cicadas, each one about twice her weight, and haul them back to her nest for larvae to consume. The burrow opening is characteristic, particularly when on flat ground, where a U-shaped mound accumulates around the nest entrance. Females have large stingers for paralyzing prey but are not aggressive to humans and do not defend their nests as other bees and wasps do. Males do not have stingers.
Damage: As predators, these wasps are considered beneficial insects that provide natural control of pest species. However, their presence can be considered a nuisance, as people are generally fearful of stinging insects. Females create large, 1-inch-diameter holes in the turfgrass when digging a burrow for larvae. Dislodged soil can form small mounds surrounding the burrow hole.
Control
Control is rarely necessary. Nest construction can damage turf and small plants, but aesthetic and economic thresholds for treatment have not been established.
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10). Cicada killers often hover 1 to 2 feet above turf canopy.
Cultural Control: Promote thicker growth of turf canopy to prevent nesting.
Chemical Control: If nest location and insect activity cause human discomfort, treat individual nests with carbaryl dust.
Figure 9a. Cicada killer wasp.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 9b. Cicada killer wasp.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Cicada Killer Wasps Treatment Calendar
Scoliid Wasps
Description: Scoliid wasps (Figure 10) are large, dark, and often have metallic coloration. One of the most common scoliid wasps in North Carolina is the blue-winged wasp, Scolia dubia. Adults are 3/4 to 2 inches long with black antennae, a shiny-black head and thorax, and dark-blue wings. They have one yellow spot on each side of the abdomen, about halfway down. The latter portion of the abdomen is brownish and fuzzy.
Biology: Scoliid wasps are present in North Carolina from June to October, but are most abundant in August. The female flies low in a loose figure-eight pattern, hunting grubs in the lawn, then digs a tunnel through the soil in pursuit or travels through one made by the beetle. She stings the grub, paralyzing it, then lays an egg on the third transverse segment of its body. The wasp larva feeds on the grub after hatching. Adults feed on flower nectar and pollen and do not sting unless stepped on or carelessly handled. In early August, the wasps often rest on flowers during the day, but they burrow into the soil at night.
Damage: As predators, these wasps are considered beneficial insects that provide natural control of pest species. However, their presence can be considered a nuisance, as people are generally fearful of stinging insects.
Control
Scoliid wasps are beneficial, as they help control green June beetles and other white grubs, and they are not aggressive toward humans. No control measures are needed.
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10).
Figure 10. Scoliid wasp.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Yellowjackets
Description: Yellowjackets (Figure 11) are house-fly-size wasps with distinct yellow-and-black markings.
Biology: Yellowjackets live in colonies formed by one queen that mated the previous fall and overwintered. They are most active in late summer and fall. Yellowjackets construct a paper nest similar to that of hornets, but their nests are smaller, darker in color, and usually in an underground cavity (although some yellowjackets create aerial nests and occasionally nest in attics or wall voids in buildings). Underground nests have a 1/2-inch opening at the soil surface. Nests are abandoned yearly and are not reused. Yellowjackets are aggressive and defend themselves by stinging. Unlike bees, yellowjackets can sting repeatedly. Stings are generally not serious but may cause life-threatening allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.
Damage: Lawns are common nest locations, particularly in sandy exposed areas or at the bases of trees and shrubs. Yellowjackets are beneficial, as they prey on many pest insects. However, management to reduce stings in recreational or green spaces is recommended.
Control
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10).
Cultural Control: Proper sanitation will reduce foraging by yellowjackets. Remove food sources and prevent access to garbage by securing it in a container with a lid and disposing of it regularly.
Chemical Control: Apply pesticide directly into the nest. In the evening, direct the spray into the nest opening and move away quickly in case yellowjackets emerge. You may need to repeat treatment the following night. If you are using a light source, do not direct a beam at the nest hole, as it may cause wasps to emerge prior to application. Wear pants and a long-sleeved shirt to protect yourself from stings.
Figure 11. Yellowjacket.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Yellowjackets Treatment Calendar
Fire Ants
Description: Red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) workers are about 1/4 inch long and reddish-brown with shiny, dark abdomens (Figure 12a). They are the only ants in North Carolina with two bumps between the thorax and abdomen.
Biology: Winged reproductive females mate in flight when temperatures are between 50°F and 95°F. Females search for a nesting site, shed their wings, dig chambers, and lay eggs. Workers are sterile, wingless females that feed the queen, defend the nest, forage for food, and care for the brood.
Damage: Fire ants are serious nuisance pests, as their mounds interfere with ball play on golf courses, damage turf-maintenance equipment, and are unsightly on lawns. Their stings can also cause serious pain and injury to humans and animals. Small colonies often go undetected until they build up mounds to escape accumulating groundwater after heavy rain. As the population grows, the ants continue to produce mounds, particularly in sunny areas or next to sidewalks, driveways, and other areas with high soil temperatures (Figure 12b).
Control
Monitoring Method: Food lure (#8).
Biological Control: Microsporidia parasites can infect immature and adult fire ants and cause colony decline over several months. The fungus Beauveria bassiana can also infect fire ants, but is more effective when applied directly to ants rather than to soil. Phorid flies can parasitize and kill adult fire ant workers.
Chemical Control: Chemical control is most effective in late spring and early fall. After confirming that ants are actively foraging, apply drench or bait insecticides to individual mounds or broadcast granules or bait insecticides over a larger area. The objective is to kill not only workers, but also the queen, the only ant in the colony capable of laying eggs. Individual mound treatments typically use smaller quantities of insecticides so are less likely to have an impact on beneficial insects; however, this application method is more time-consuming than placing bait stations or broadcasting.
Figure 12a. Red imported fire ant worker.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 12b. Fire ant mound.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Nuisance Ants
Description: Nuisance ants (Formica spp.) include the red wood ant (F. integra), the silky field ant (F. subsericea), and the Allegheny mound ant (F. exectoides). The red wood ant and Allegheny mound ant are a two-tone red color, with an abdomen often much darker than the thorax. The silky field ant is completely black.
Biology: Similar to fire ants, nuisance ants construct nests (Figure 13) in spring and fall, generally in areas with higher soil temperatures—near sidewalks, concrete slabs, and pavement—or in locations with bare soil in direct sunlight. A colony generally consists of an egg-laying queen, males, immature stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae), and sterile female workers. The workers tend the eggs. In spring and fall, colonies produce winged ants that leave to mate and seek new nesting sites. Red wood ants feed on other arthropods—including sawfly larvae, bark beetles, termites, and honey bees—and tend aphids, psyllids, and scale insects for honeydew. Silky field ants prefer mostly sugar diets and primarily tend to other insects.
Damage: Unlike fire ants, Formica ants are not typically pests in managed turfgrass but can become an issue when they inhabit the same area from year to year. Although Formica species do not present a human health hazard like fire ants, they are a nuisance. Workers can infest buildings in large numbers in search of food for the growing colony. The construction of nests (by F. exectoides, in particular) results in large mounds that are unsightly and often damage mowing equipment.
Control
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10).
Cultural Control: Ants serve a useful role in the ecosystem, so the presence of ants in turf is not always harmful. Reducing the amount of available food (for example, pet food, fruit, and bird feed) and eliminating moist wood or debris from an area can help discourage establishment of these ant colonies.
Chemical Control: If chemical control is necessary, carbamates or pyrethroids can be used. For red wood ants located next to a structure, a gel bait containing fipronil may be used. CAUTION: Do not use bait stations in places accessible to pets.
Figure 13. Nuisance ant mound.
Greenseas/Shutterstock
Ground Pearls
Description: Ground pearls (Figure 14) are scale insects that appear as small, pearl-like formations on roots or in thatch. Adult females are about 1⁄16 inch long, wingless, and pink, with well-developed forelegs and claws. Males are small and gnat-like, with a slender waxy “tail” up to 1/4 inch long. Nymphs form a hard, globular, yellowish-pink shell, resulting in a “pearl” structure measuring up to 1⁄16 inch in diameter.
Biology: Adult females appear in late spring to early summer. Eggs hatch from May to July. Ground pearls are in the nymph (pearl) life stage for most of the year.
Damage: In southeastern and southwestern states, ground pearls most commonly infest bermudagrass, St. Augustinegrass, zoysiagrass, and centipedegrass. Damage to turf is most apparent during dry spells, when irregular patches of grass turn yellow, then turn brown, and ultimately die, usually by fall. Once established, ground pearls are a perennial problem.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soil sampling (#5). Samples may need to be sent to the North Carolina State University Plant Disease and Insect Clinic for diagnosis. Check the roots of new sod or sprigs before planting to ensure that they are not infested.
Cultural Control: Maintaining a healthy lawn is the best way to minimize damage from ground pearls. Water, lime, and fertilize turf as prescribed by a soil test. Mow to the proper height with a sharp blade. Good cultural practices may reduce injury caused by ground pearls, though recovery might be temporary.
Chemical Control: Although some products are labeled for ground pearl control, most insecticides are not effective. For example, broad-spectrum insecticides like carbaryl do not work. Repeated applications of some neonicotinoids* can provide some suppression.
Figure 14. Ground pearl life stages: egg, cyst (pearl), and adult female in foreground.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Ground Pearls Treatment Calendar
Twolined Spittlebugs
Description: Twolined spittlebugs (Prosapia bicincta) are true bugs. Adults are about 1⁄3 inch long and have a black body, bright-red eyes, and two red-orange stripes across each wing (Figure 15a). They resemble leafhoppers in that the wings form a tentlike or inverted-V shape and the bugs leap away when disturbed. Nymphs are small and yellow, white, or orange; have red eyes and brown heads; and lack wings.
Biology: Eggs overwinter in grass stems and hatch in spring. Nymphs and adults suck plant juices from turfgrass. They produce a spittle mass (Figure 15b), a mixture of digested plant sap and air bubbles, for protection from predators and desiccation. Adults feed in the morning and evening, hiding from midday heat in the thatch layer or in shrubs. They usually feed on lower parts of the grass, where conditions are humid.
Damage: Two-lined spittlebugs prefer feeding on bermudagrass and centipedegrass but will also infest St. Augustinegrass and orchardgrass. Nymphs are particularly damaging, causing weakened, stressed grass. The spittle masses also give turf an unsightly appearance.
Control
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#10). Monitor after heavy spring and summer rains. Check for nymphs after midday, when they are feeding higher on the plants. Sticky cards (#4).
Cultural Control: Follow turf maintenance guidelines for fertilization, mowing, and irrigation. If the infestation is heavy, remove thatch or top-dress the lawn with a sand/soil mix.
Chemical Control: Numerous insecticides are labeled to control spittlebugs on turf. Sprays are more effective than granular forms. Apply pesticides late in the day. Mow and remove grass clippings immediately before application.
Figure 15a. Twoliined spittlebug adult.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Figure 15b. Spittle mass around grass stem.
RealityImages/Shutterstock
Twolined Spittlebugs Treatment Calendar
Chinch Bugs
Description: More than 20 chinch bug species are native to North America, but only the southern chinch bug (Blissus insularis Barber) and hairy chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus hirtus Montandon) are primary pests in the southeastern United States. Chinch bugs are about 1/10 to 1/5 inch long, oblong-oval in shape, and black with shiny, white wings, each with a distinctive triangular black mark (Figure 16). They look similar to big-eyed bugs. Nymphs are smaller than adults (1/25 to 1/10 inch) and change in appearance throughout development. The first two instar stages are bright orange with a white band across the abdomen. Later instars are orange-brown, dark brown, or black, with developing wing pads.
Biology: Chinch bugs are active year-round in the Southeast, with occasional winter dormancy for adults; thus, they usually do not leave their feeding grounds, remaining sheltered around the roots and bases of grass.
Damage: Nymphs and adults cause damage by sucking fluid from turfgrass. During feeding, they may inject a salivary secretion into the plant that interferes with water and nutrient movement, causing grasses to become wilted and discolored.
Control
Monitoring Methods: Examine the turf canopy (#9) for nymphs and adults (recommended); pitfall traps (#3); sticky cards (#4); vacuum sampling (#12).
Cultural Control: Good cultural control can reduce the need for chemicals. Observe proper mowing, fertilization, watering, and specific lawn-care practices to minimize thatch, which can provide shelter for chinch bugs and impede movement of pesticides.
Biological Control: Several beneficial predatory insects attack chinch bugs.
Chemical Control: Use chemical insecticides only when necessary, as repeated applications may reduce beneficial insect populations. A combination of pyrethroid and neonicotinoid* insecticides has been successful in controlling chinch bugs. Some populations are resistant to common insecticides, including imidacloprid*, bifenthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and deltamethrin*.
Figure 16. Southern chinch bug.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Chinch Bugs Treatment Calendar
Leafhoppers
Description: Leafhoppers (Figure 17) are small (no more than 1/4 inch long), wedge-shaped insects that appear similar in shape to cicadas. Coloration varies by species, with most appearing white, yellow, or green. They are very active insects that often jump or fly short distances. They are most commonly detected when the turf canopy is disturbed by foot traffic or mowing. This disturbance causes adults to fly in large groups, which can look similar to the behavior of whiteflies in nurseries and greenhouses.
Biology: Leafhoppers become active in spring, when adult females insert their eggs in turfgrass leaves. These eggs hatch within a few days. The immature nymphs feed on turf by inserting their piercing-sucking mouthparts into the plant. Nymphs feed for one to two weeks before becoming adults. There are multiple generations throughout the growing season, with each generation lasting 12 to 30 days, depending on temperature.
Damage: Movement by adult leafhoppers is more common and noticeable in turfgrass than damage. Leafhoppers tend to be more active in residential lawns but they can occur in other areas. With a heavy infestation, leafhoppers can cause yellowing or bleaching of turfgrass; upon close examination, leaf blades may show signs of stippling (tiny, bleached spots).
Control
Monitoring Method: Examine turf canopy (#9 and #10) or use sticky cards (#4).
Control: Leafhoppers rarely cause damage in turfgrass. Chemical treatment is not generally recommended unless populations are large. If leafhopper damage is evident, contact insecticides—including pyrethroids, carbaryl, and acephate—can provide effective control.
Figure 17. Leafhopper (family Cicadellidae).
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Leafhoppers Treatment Calendar
Cutworms
Description: Cutworms (Figure 18a) are so named because these caterpillars feed on stems and leaves of young plants, often cutting them off near the soil line. The most common species in North Carolina are the black, bronzed, granulate, and variegated cutworms, although black cutworms are most prevalent in turfgrass. Adults are gray-brown moths with wingspans of 1 2/5 to 1 4/5 inches (Figure 18b). The larvae of the various species are difficult to distinguish. Black cutworm larvae range in color from dark-green to gray to black and typically have a pale stripe down the back.
Biology: Cutworms are typically active in spring and fall. Female moths lay single eggs on tips of leaf blades. Eggs hatch in 3 to 10 days. Larvae tunnel through thatch or use aeration holes to reach the soil. Larvae usually stay below the soil surface during the day and feed at night. They develop over a period of 20 to 45 days, then pupate for about two weeks before emerging as adults.
Damage: Black cutworms are pests of bentgrass, annual bluegrass, and occasionally perennial ryegrass. They are typically a problem on short-mown golf courses and rarely cause issues in home lawns. Cutworms can injure turf when burrowing through thatch or into the ground. Damage may appear as circular spots of dead grass, finger-sized brown crescents, or ball marks on a golf green. Cutworms may strip large areas of turf at ground level. Aeration may worsen damage.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1) (recommended); pheromone traps (#2), night collecting (#6); light traps (#7).
Cultural Control: Collecting and removing clippings in recently mown areas may remove eggs from the turf stand.
Biological Control: Steinernema carpocapsae nematodes are ambush (sit-and-wait) predators of surface-mobile insects like cutworms.
Chemical Control: Apply liquid formulation chemicals as late in the day as possible for optimal contact with larvae. Avoid irrigating for at least 24 hours. Treating a 20- to 30-foot buffer zone around greens and tees will reduce migration from outlying areas.
Figure 18a. Cutworm.
DeRebus/Shutterstock
Figure 18b. Cutworm moth.
M. Trabbold/Shutterstock
Cutworms (Black) Treatment Calendar
Fall Armyworms
Description: Fall armyworms are 1 to 1 1/2 inches long, varying in color from green to mottled brown to almost black (Figure 19a). These caterpillars have wide, black stripes on each side of the body and a light-colored, inverted-Y marking on the head capsule. Adult moths (Figure 19b) are more difficult to distinguish from other armyworm species, but they have a wingspan of 1 to 1 1/2 inches, white hind wings (like cutworm moths), and a distinct white spot near the center of each forewing.
Biology: In midsummer, females lay eggs in clusters on the surface of vegetation or flat surfaces of neighboring structures. Larvae are most active in early morning or late evening. Large populations of these caterpillars can consume all available foliage and crawl in “armies” to find new food sources like nearby crops or turf stands. Larvae feed for two to three weeks, then dig into the soil to pupate. Within two weeks, a new generation of adults emerges. Several generations occur each year in North Carolina.
Damage: Fall armyworm damage in turfgrass is very distinctive. Because armyworms cross the turf surface en masse, they create a noticeable boundary between damaged and undamaged turfgrass. Damaged areas usually originate around a site where egg masses can be easily laid and radiate outward.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1) (recommended) and pheromone traps (#2).
Chemical Control: When possible, mow and lightly irrigate the turf prior to treating. Insecticides are generally ineffective against large larvae (over 1 inch long), so be sure to note the size of the armyworms before making an application. Large larvae are likely to finish feeding and burrow into the soil to pupate, so apply pesticides only if larvae are relatively small. Pyrethroids and carbamates will provide somewhat effective control against smaller larvae. Diamides can provide long-term control (two to three months) of turf-feeding caterpillars.
Figure 19a. Fall armyworm caterpillar.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
19b. Fall armyworm moth.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Fall Armyworms Treatment Calendar
Sod Webworms
Description: Sod webworm adults are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long with a prominent snout (Figure 20). The moth's forewings are brown or dull ash-gray with a whitish streak from the base to the margin; hind wings are brownish. Sod webworm larvae vary from pinkish to yellowish to light brown. Their thick bodies are 5/8 to 1 inch long with coarse hairs and spots on each segment. The head is yellowish-brown to black. They often curl into a C shape. Sod webworms are much smaller than armyworms and cutworms.
Biology: Adult flights begin in May and occur until October. Moths fly in an erratic zigzag pattern close to the ground. They are active at dusk and rest near the ground during the day. They live only a few days, feeding on dew. Females lay eggs indiscriminately over grass. Eggs hatch in seven to ten days. Young larvae overwinter in silk-lined tubes among grass roots 1/2 to 1 inch below the soil line.
Damage: Sod webworms feed on cool-season and warm-season grasses, preferring hot, dry areas. Larvae form silk-lined burrows in the thatch layer; they feed after sunset, severing grass blades just above the thatch line and pulling them into their burrows to eat. Initial signs of damage appear as small, brown patches of closely cropped grass that turn yellow-brown in midsummer and quickly grow into larger patches in dry weather; damage is easily mistaken for drought symptoms.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1).
Biological Control: Entomopathogenic nematodes, fungi, and bacteria show varying efficacy in controlling sod webworms.
Chemical Control: Contact insecticides, including pyrethroids and carbaryl, and systemic products like diamides are effective at controlling sod webworms.
Figure 20. Sod webworm moth.
Paul Reeves Photography/Shutterstock
Sod Webworms Treatment Calendar
Crane Fly Larvae
Description: Crane fly larvae (Figure 21a) are about 2 to 3 inches long, brown, and legless (unlike caterpillars). Over time, they develop tough outer skin and are often called “leatherjackets.” Adult crane flies (Figure 21b) resemble giant mosquitoes, but they cannot bite and do not spread disease to humans. Though their wingspan is 2 inches, they are weak, clumsy flyers and often rest on the sides of structures.
Biology: Adults emerge in summer to mate and lay eggs in thatch. The larvae feed throughout fall and then overwinter. As temperatures increase in spring, the larvae resume feeding and mature.
Damage: Crane fly larvae chew on roots and crowns of turf during the day, and larger instars will feed on the foliar tissue at night. Damage is usually more noticeable in late fall and spring when larger, overwintered larvae have resumed feeding. Damage typically appears first as a general thinning of the turf, which progresses to create large, brown patches.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1).
Cultural Control: Mow and fertilize properly to encourage a healthy turfgrass stand, which will minimize the likelihood of a crane fly infestation and help turf overcome any damage by feeding. Allowing the grass to dry will increase the likelihood of egg desiccation. Remove excess thatch to decrease habitat for crane fly larvae.
Biological Control: Birds, ground beetles, and parasitic organisms can reduce populations of crane fly larvae in areas with fewer inputs. The parasitic nematode Steinernema feltiae may reduce larval populations by as much as 50 percent when properly applied.
Chemical Control: Crane flies are generally more of an issue in the Northeast, particularly in cool-season grasses. Chemical control measures are rarely required in North Carolina.
21a. Crane fly larva.
D. Reiland (NC State University)
Figure 21b. Adult crane fly.
Paulrommer SL/Shutterstock
Crane Fly Larvae Treatment Calendar
Mole Crickets
Description: Mole cricket adults (Figure 22a) are large (1 to 2 inches long) brown insects with a shield-like structure (pronotum) behind the head and shovel-like forelegs that are used for tunneling through soil. Two mole cricket species are considered pests of turfgrass in southeastern North Carolina: the tawny mole cricket (Scapteriscus vicinus) and the southern mole cricket (Scapteriscus borellii). Both species are similar in appearance but can be distinguished by the shape and spacing of the claws (dactyls) on the forelegs. Nymphs resemble adults but have wing “pads” rather than full wings.
Biology: Both species dig extensive tunnels up to 30 inches deep and 10 to 20 feet long in the soil. They move toward the surface when it is warm and moist, digging deeper when it is cool and dry. They will also come to the surface to forage shortly after dusk when weather is favorable. Adults generally emerge in late winter and early spring, with southern mole crickets emerging slightly later than tawny mole crickets. Nymphs are mostly active during summer.
Damage: Tawny mole crickets are the more destructive species, feeding almost exclusively on turf roots and shoots. Southern mole crickets are primarily predators of small arthropods, but they may feed on plant tissue if prey is scarce. Both species cause secondary damage by dislodging roots when tunneling through soil (Figure 22b). More feeding damage is observed in warm, wet weather. Large infestations may create areas of exposed, bare soil and pencil-sized holes at the entrance to tunnels (Figure 22b). Soil may appear “churned” and feel soft and spongy.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1) in late March or early April.
Chemical Control: Whenever possible, target nymphs to improve efficacy of insecticides. Combination products (which contain more than one active ingredient), pyrethroids, fipronil, and indoxacarb baits can all be used for mole cricket management. Fipronil and indoxacarb baits provide longer residual activity compared to other products.
Figure 22a. Mole cricket adult.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 22b. Holes in turf created by tunneling mole crickets.
B. Royals (NC State University)
Mole Crickets Treatment Calendar
Bermudagrass Mites
Description: Bermudagrass mites (Eriophyes cynodoniensis) are tiny, wormlike, soil-dwelling arachnids that occasionally damage bermudagrass. They are generally white or cream-colored and so small that they typically require a hand lens or microscope to be seen (Figure 23a). They are more prevalent in the southern United States.
Biology: The mites generally begin feeding as temperatures increase in spring. Adults infest and lay eggs under the leaf sheath. The first larval stage is clear-bodied and present only for a very short period. Bermudagrass mites reproduce many times per year, generating large numbers of offspring; thus, the potential for rapid establishment and infestation is high.
Damage: Mites cause damage in both their mature and immature stages. “Witch’s brooms”—irreversible tufts or rosettes in turf—are a common sign of infestation (Figure 23b). Over time, infested turf turns yellow and brown and gradually thins, causing bare spots at the soil surface. Damage has increased in prevalence in recent years, likely the result of more narrow-spectrum products and changes in irrigation practices.
Control
Monitoring Method: The easiest method of monitoring is to search for witch’s brooms in turf areas that appear stressed.
Cultural Control: General cultural control practices can improve the appearance of infested turfgrass in early stages of infestation. High nitrogen levels are often associated with increased mite damage, so it is important to perform soil tests and adhere to recommendations. Proper sanitation of mowing equipment is also crucial.
Biological Control: There are no known natural enemies specific to bermudagrass mites, but predatory mites and pathogenic fungi are known to reduce mite numbers in other crops.
Chemical Control: Chemical application for bermudagrass mite control is generally not very effective; home lawn products are not effective.
Figure 23a. Microscopic view of round bermudagrass mite eggs and other growth stages.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 23b. Witch's broom in bermudagrass.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Zoysiagrass Mites
Description: Zoysiagrass mites are tiny, white, wormlike arachnids that are occasional pests of turfgrass. There is very little information available for zoysiagrass mites as turfgrass pests, but some comparisons can be made with bermudagrass mites.
Biology: Adults deposit eggs under leaf sheaths and can complete an entire life cycle within a week. Mites are able to produce a large number of offspring and can have many generations in a year, so potential for rapid establishment and infestation is high.
Damage: Zoysiagrass mite damage is most severe and obvious in late spring to early summer; the leaf will roll in on itself from one side, protecting mites underneath (Figure 24). As the leaf continues to roll, it can catch older and newer growth, causing a large section of the plant to have an arch-like appearance.
Control
Monitoring Method: Zoysiagrass mites are nearly impossible to see without a hand lens, so the best way to monitor for them is to look for plants exhibiting signs of damage. In large infested plants, unroll the leaf tissue to look for yellow or white steaks from collar to tip.
Cultural Control: The zoysiagrass cultivars Royal, Emerald, and El Toro are somewhat resistant to mite damage; Meyer, on the other hand, has shown to be highly susceptible. Excessive nitrogen levels are associated with increased mite damage. Properly irrigate turf and apply lime and fertilizer applications according to soil test recommendations.
Chemical Control: Chemical control is generally not effective, and repeat applications are often necessary. Products containing abamectin or lambda-cyhalothrin have shown limited efficacy on bermudagrass mites in insecticide trials at Clemson University. If making an application, it is often recommended to combine with a fertilizer to improve the appearance of grass while reducing mite population.
Figure 24. Arched zoysiagrass blades.
D. Richmond (Purdue University)
Millipedes
Description: Millipedes (Figure 25a) are occasional pests that can invade buildings, particularly to escape the heat, but they are also prevalent after substantial rainfall. They do not bite, sting, or transmit diseases, nor do they infest food, clothing, or dry, structurally sound wood. When disturbed, millipedes often curl up and remain motionless. They crawl slowly and protect themselves by secreting a cyanide-like compound that has an unpleasant odor and may irritate skin or eyes. Millipedes vary in color and size, but the most common species that invades buildings is the garden millipede, which is brownish-black and about 1 inch long (Figure 25b).
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1).
Cultural Control: The most effective long-term way to reduce millipede populations is to eliminate habitats and remove sources of moisture.
- Remove leaves, grass clippings, heavy accumulations of mulch, wooden boards, stones, and boxes.
- Prevent water accumulation: Keep gutters and downspouts free of debris. Use splash guards or perforated pipe to reduce puddling.
- De-thatch lawns and mow grass close to the ground.
- Millipedes often die from lack of moisture soon after invading homes. Remove them with a broom or vacuum.
Chemical Control: Insecticides applied to interior living areas are not very effective in stopping millipede invasions. Insecticides (particularly combination products, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids*) may help reduce invasion of millipedes as well as other pests when applied in these locations outdoors:
- Along entryways
- Crawl space doors
- Foundation vents
- Utility openings
- Siding
Adequate spray volume, the amount of diluted chemical applied to an area, is the most important component of successful chemical control. The spray must penetrate the soil rather than just lightly coating the surface. For homeowners, the best method of application is a garden hose attachment. Treat a 2- to 5-foot-wide area of ground along the foundation in mulched ornamental plant beds and an 18- to 24-inch-wide vertical band on the foundation wall.
Figure 25a. Millipede.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 25b. Garden millipede.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Earthworms
Description: Earthworms (Figure 26a) are a large, complex group of soil-dwelling worms in the phylum Annelida that is comprised of native and nonnative species. Most earthworms in turf are in the family Lumbricidae, the most common of which is the nightcrawler, Lumbricus terrestris. Earthworms are several inches long and can vary in color from brownish-red to gray. They have highly segmented bodies and a smooth, enlarged band about 2 inches from the anterior (front) end. Earthworms are beneficial in soil for aeration, water penetration, and thatch control.
Biology: Earthworms have both male and female reproductive organs, so any two adults can mate. Mating takes place at night on or just below the soil surface. Earthworms deposit fertilized eggs in cocoons in the soil. Each cocoon contains about four eggs, which hatch in two to three weeks.
Damage: Earthworms can be undesirable in a managed turf area in large numbers, as they create unsightly mounds (Figure 26b) that can interfere with ball play. In addition to castings or mounds disrupting the turf surface, they can also accumulate in the path of maintenance equipment, interfering with turf amendment applications and mowing. Earthworms are also a major food source for moles and cluster flies and can attract these pests to an area.
Control
Monitoring Method: Soap flush (#1); examine turf canopy (#10) for mounds.
Cultural Control: Earthworms generally prefer less-acidic (pH < 6.0), less well-drained soils, so increasing the pH and regulating soil moisture can reduce the incidence of earthworm infestations. Excess organic material, such as grass clippings, should be collected and removed from the turf surface. Some turf managers apply a top dressing of sand to manage earthworm castings, but with varying results.
Biological Control: Natural enemies of earthworms include ants, centipedes, birds, snakes, carabid beetles, and nematodes.
Chemical Control: There are no chemical pesticides for homeowners registered for treatment against earthworms. Of the commonly used turf pesticides labeled for other insect pests, carbamates and neonicotinoids* are toxic to earthworms. Organic fertilizers with crushed tea seeds have shown suppression of earthworms in field trials due to the presence of saponin compounds.
Figure 26a. Earthworm.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Figure 26b. Earthworm mounds.
M. Bertone (NC State University)
Pollinators
Many insect species in managed green spaces play an important, beneficial role as plant pollinators (Figure 27). Although the honey bee is the most well-known and relied on for pollination of many commercial crops, other bee species—along with many wasps, butterflies, moths, flies and beetles—are valuable as pollinators. The decline of pollinators in recent years has been well documented. Factors contributing to pollinator decline include loss of habitat, climate change, parasites, disease, lack of genetic diversity, poor nutrition, and pesticides. Fortunately, we can control the impact of pesticides by employing best management practices (BMPs) for pollinators whenever possible.
You can increase insect pollinator abundance in your area by dedicating open or “out-of-play” areas to wildflower plantings. These habitats not only attract pollinators, but also provide habitat, refuge, and other resources for a broad diversity of beneficial insect types. Plantings will increase numbers of insect pollinators in the short-term but must be maintained and reseeded regularly to have a lasting impact on populations. For more information, see Common Insects of Wildflower Plantings Within North Carolina Turfgrass: A Field Guide.
If pesticides are used on turfgrass, choose the appropriate product, follow the label instructions, and apply under the right conditions and at the proper time. The following list describes some BMPs for protecting pollinators in turfgrass.
- Remove flowering weeds from turf canopy (by hand-picking or mowing) prior to applying pesticides.
- Create a buffer zone of at least 3 feet between treated turf and flowering ornamentals.
- Avoid spraying in windy conditions.
- Spray after petal fall.
- Opt for granules over liquids and dusts.
- Remove excess residue from plants (unless label indicates turf should not be irrigated following application).
- Select a less toxic insecticide.
Figure 27. Wasp on flower.
L. Kilpatrick (NC State University)
Monitoring Methods
- Soap flush: Mix 2 tablespoons of dish detergent in 1 gallon of water and apply to a 2-square-foot section of turf. Wait two to five minutes and examine any arthropods that come to the surface. For best results, use dish detergent with a strong scent (lemon or laundry) or a green colorant.
Arthropods: Annual bluegrass weevil, cutworms, earthworms, fall armyworms, hunting billbugs (sometimes), millipedes, mole crickets, sod webworms - Pheromone traps: Assemble pheromone traps according to directions and place lure near the trap entrance. Check weekly and record insect counts totrack peaks in activity.
Arthropods: Fall armyworm moths, cutworm moths, Japanese beetles - Pitfall traps: For linear pitfall traps, cut a 1/2-inch slit in 2-inch diameter PVC pipe and seal one end with plastic wrap. Place pipe in a shallow trench in the turf so that the surface of the pipe sits flush with soil surface. Remove a 3-inch diameter core of turfgrass from the end of trench using a standard golf course cup cutter. Remove a section (same diameter as PVC pipe) from the side of a plastic drinking cup. Fit drinking cup into the cup-sized hole in turfgrass and fit PVC pipe into cup. Check cup weekly and record insect counts to track peaks in activity.
Arthropods: Annual bluegrass weevils, billbugs, chinch bugs
- Sticky cards: Remove sticky card from package and place on a stake either flush with the turf canopy or near ornamentals where insects are a concern. Monitor cards weekly to track trends in population development. Because dirt and debris will quickly accumulate on the cards, do not place them in high-traffic areas.
Arthropods: Flying insect pests, twolined spittlebugs, mites, chinch bugs (sometimes), leafhoppers - Soil sampling: Use either a cup cutter, shovel, or sod cutter to sample a fixed area of turfgrass. If using a cup cutter or shovel, slowly break apart the soil, and examine the lower 1 to 3 inches for insect larvae (or ground pearls). If using a sod cutter, roll back the turf like a mat. Slowly rake through the soil underneath and examine for larval insects.
Arthropods: Hunting billbug larvae, white grub species (including sugarcane beetle larvae), ground pearls, wireworms - Night collecting: Many insects can be observed crawling on the turf surface an hour or two after sunset. Canvas the lawn using a flashlight or headlamp, paying particular attention to short-mown areas.
Arthropods: Annual bluegrass weevils, hunting billbugs, sugarcane beetles, cutworms, some white grub adults (masked chafers, May/June beetles) - Light traps: This method is less common, as commercial availability of light traps has decreased in recent years. Place light trap close to a power source, set up, and plug in. Examine contents of collection container weekly to record insect counts. Note that light traps will catch many different insects, so know when to monitor your target insect to use the trap efficiently.
Arthropods: Black cutworm moths, fall armyworm moths, white grub species (masked chafer, May/June beetle), sugarcane beetles - Food lure: Place a greasy food item (for example, hot dog piece, potato chip, or canned tuna) within 2 feet ofthe center of a fire ant mound. Wait five to ten minutes to determine if fire ants are actively foraging in the area. Arthropods: Fire ants
- Examine turf canopy (A): Gently part the turf and examine the soil surface for insect activity.
Arthropods: Chinch bugs (nymphs and adults), leafhoppers - Examine turf canopy (B): Look for mounds, spittle masses, or flying insects hovering around the turf surface.
Arthropods: Cicada killers (active for two to three weeks in spring and early summer—may notice mounds); ground-nesting bees (active for three to four weeks in spring and early summer—may notice mounds, which are smaller and more abundant than cicada killer mounds); scoliid wasps (active for two to three weeks in spring and early summer—do not create mounds); yellowjackets; twolined spittlebugs; leafhoppers (small clouds of tiny white insects fly up when turf is disturbed). - Tug test: In damaged areas, grasp a small section of the turf canopy with your hand and pull upward. If the turf separates easily from the soil surface, similar to how unsecured carpet can be lifted from the floor in a house, it is a good indication of insect feeding in the crown and upper root zones.
Arthropods: White grubs primarily; possibly some weevils (including billbugs) - Vacuum sampling: Use a leaf blower that has reverse suction flow. Place a cloth bag over the shaft of the leaf blower and secure with a circle clamp. Turn on leaf blower and sweep over the turfgrass canopy. When finished, turn off power, remove bag, and sort through the collected material for insects.
Arthropods: Chinch bugs, annual bluegrass weevil
Acknowledgments
The Center for Turfgrass Environmental Research and Education provided funds for this publication.
The authors thank Aidan Royals, Gram Grant, Esme Chiara, and Caoilin Hoctor for their assistance in assembling this field guide.
Publication date: Aug. 27, 2025
AG-965
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