Contents
Introduction
Sports fields play a pivotal role in recreational and competitive outdoor athletic activities. A quality playing surface is appreciated by all participants, whether playing casual pick-up games or professional team sports, because a quality surface produces a pleasing appearance for spectators. In addition, sports complexes are now facing increasing legal questions and liability about injuries associated with poorly designed, constructed, or maintained facilities. To have a quality turfgrass playing surface in all seasons, sports fields must include the following:
- Adequate surface and subsurface water drainage
- A properly designed, installed, and maintained irrigation system
- A vigorous, regular turfgrass maintenance program with an appropriate turfgrass
- Reasonable play and field use
- Basic equipment
Unacceptable turfgrass often results when one or more of these elements are omitted or when uncontrolled, excessive play and traffic are allowed. Bermudagrass has optimal growth during the summer months, but with the onset of play and traffic in fall, as well as soil compaction, the turf can become excessively worn. For this reason, some fields are overseeded with a ryegrass that provides a wearable surface during the winter and early spring seasons.
Field Dimensions
The first step in developing a turfgrass management plan is to understand the areas in the field. This is needed for budgeting items such as the appropriate time and amount of product to be applied. Certain sports create heavy traffic on specific areas of the field. Soccer fields are heavily worn at the goal areas, while football is typically played between the hash marks and the 20-yard lines. Baseball and softball are played on the skinned areas (Figure 1). A comparison of athletic field dimensions and relative field sizes is listed in Table 1.
| Sport | Dimensions (Feet) |
Area | General Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Football | 360L by 160W | 57,600 sq ft (or 1.3 acres) | The 1.3 acres are within the sidelines. The area outside the sidelines is typically 20 or more ft or 30,000 sq ft of space. Together, these two areas include approximately 2 acres. Primary play is between the hash marks, which is about 20,000 sq ft. |
| Baseball | 90 between bases | 110,00 sq ft (or 2.5 acres total) with approximately 11,500 sq ft of skinned infield | Baseball fields vary in size depending on the depth of the fences (300 ft minimum foul line to 400 ft to center). A minimum of 12 ft in the outfield and 8 ft around the stands is the warning track. The warning tracks are usually 15 ft in the outfield and 12 to 15 ft in foul territory. The infield receives the most play. (Note: Little League, Pony League, and the Babe Ruth League have smaller dimensions than listed.) For more information, see publication AG-725 Baseball Field Layout and Construction. |
| Soccer | 360L by 225W | 81,000 sq ft (or 1.9 acres) | Soccer fields have an average of 78,000 sq ft with an additional area of 8,000 to 10,000 sq ft along the sidelines, which receive heavy traffic. A soccer field is larger than a football field in width, although soccer fields can have different dimensions, which vary with the age of the participants. Goal mouths (the areas directly in front of the goal), center field, the referee sidelines, and the four corner kick areas experience the highest wear. |
| Softball, fast pitch | 60 between bases | 40,000 to 70,000 sq ft (or 0.9 to 1.6 acres) | Fast pitch softball fields have an average depth of 200 ft and approximately 40,000 sq ft of turf, depending on the sideline area. Slow pitch softball has an average fence depth of 300 ft and approximately 70,000 sq ft of turf, depending on the sideline areas. The three outfielder positions experience the greatest turf wear. |
| Softball, slow pitch | 65 between bases |
Figure 1. Softball field includes turf as well as clay surface.
Source: NC State University
Field Use Capacity
A common challenge is determining the amount of play a field can withstand. Every effort should be made to accommodate all participating groups, although not at the expense of the fields. Information on field use parameters can be found in Extension publication AG-726 Maximizing the Durability of Athletic Fields.
Athletic Field Design
Before construction, it is important to prepare a realistic timetable for every operation, from writing specifications to obtaining contractor bids and completing the field. Most individuals who are not acquainted with this process are surprised at the time needed to complete the planning and construction of a field, which can vary from several months to two years, depending on the project size, contractor experience, and weather.
All athletic fields should be designed and constructed according to the standard dimensions of the game for which they will be used. Contours and drainage provisions are very important because they facilitate fast removal of surface water that maintains desirable playing conditions. If possible, it is best to orient fields in directions that minimize the time that players must look directly into the sun during games. In general, the long axis of the field should be in a north-south direction, which also minimizes the field area that is shaded during the winter months if there are trees along the south side of the field. A good design will provide for installation of an adequate irrigation system, drainage, and proper orientation of the field.
Planting Decisions
It is best to consult with a state turf specialist or an established field construction contractor to discuss grass options. No single type of grass is best suited to all situations. Several factors must be considered before you decide which grass to plant. Your decision should consider region, climate, intended use or wear at the site, and desired appearance. In general, the North Carolina fields use a bermudagrass. There are some exceptions in the mountains, but in much of western North Carolina, bermudagrass is often used on fields.
Bermudagrass is desirable for athletic fields because it establishes quickly, withstands wear and traffic, and recovers rapidly from injury. Bermudagrass is also extremely drought tolerant, grows rapidly on most soil types, and creates a good turf surface when fertilized and mowed low and often. The cultivar texture ranges from coarse to fine, and forms a dense, durable surface when grown in full sunlight.
Most finely textured, high-quality, turf-type bermudagrasses are planted with sod, sprigs, or plugs. Common bermudagrass, which is the most coarsely textured, can be seeded, as can several newer cultivars with a medium texture. Bermudagrass should be seeded at 1 to 2 lb per 1,000 sq feet (45 to 90 lb per acre).
Tifway (also called Tiftway 419) is a hybrid bermudagrass that has been a popular choice for sports fields for more than 30 years. Other improved bermudagrasses used for athletic fields include IronCutter, TifTuf, Latitude 36, Northbridge, Tahoma 31, Patriot, Celebration, GN-1, and Tifton 10. These grasses must be established vegetatively, and most commonly by sprigs and less commonly by plugs or sod. The initial cost of these planting methods is greater than seeding common bermudagrass, although for the desired aesthetics, color, density, texture, and recuperative potential, these improved cultivars are superior to common bermudagrass.
Seeded bermudagrasses (common bermudagrass) are used primarily because they can be established by seed, which is relatively inexpensive. However, when compared to Tifway bermudagrass, most seeded bermudagrasses produce a lower quality surface with a lighter green color, coarser leaf blades and density, unsightly stem and seedhead production during the summer, and slower recuperative potential. Princess 77, Monaco, Rio, and Riviera are high quality cultivars that can be seeded and are similar to the best vegetatively established cultivars. Riviera is also known for its excellent cold tolerance, as is the more coarsely textured Yukon.
Other improved common bermudagrasses with better color and density compared to the old Arizona common bermudagrass include Blackjack, Blue-Muda, Bradley, Burning Tree, Cheyenne, DelSol, Gold Glove, Guymon, Hollywood, Jackpot, LaPaloma, LaPrima (a blend of certified bermudagrasses), Majestic, Mercury, Mirage, Mohawk, NorthShore SLT, Panama, Paradise, Primavera, Primo, Pyramid 2, Royal Bengal, Sahara, Savannah, Shangri-La, Soliel, Sonesta, Southern Star, Sultan, Sunbird, Sunsport, Sundance II, Sundevil II, SunStar, Sultan, Sydney, Transcontinental, Veracruz, Yukon, and Yuma.
Winter-Kill Considerations
For sports fields located in the upper piedmont and mountainous regions that are prone to low-temperature winter injury, the choices for bermudagrass are an issue of survival rather than aesthetics. IronCutter, Latitude 36, Midlawn, Midfield, Midiron, NorthBridge, Patriot, Quickstand, Tahoma 31, and Vamont are vegetatively propagated bermudagrass selections that have increased cold tolerance from their deeper, more robust rhizomes. These selections tend to retain color longer in fall, green up earlier in the spring, and are more vigorous in growth and recovery from damage or winter-kill. Yukon, Monaco, and Riviera are seeded bermudagrasses with improved cold tolerance and playing characteristics such as finer texture, increased density, and better wear tolerance. In addition, winter-kill determines which preemergence herbicide to use for crabgrass and goosegrass control. (See weed control section for further details.)
Field Drainage
Reasonable water drainage from a field is important to protect the field’s integrity and limit event cancellations. Fields built with heavy native soil depend primarily on surface drainage to remove excess water. Because these fields hold nutrients and have a high water-holding capacity, they require less fertilizer and water, and they provide good stability, shear strength, and traction. In contrast, since most have inadequate drainage and may compact easily, perimeter drain lines are required to facilitate surface run-off.
Sand-based fields that can be built flat and not heavily crowned have high infiltration rates (Figure 2). Their internal drainage can be designed to move large amounts of water away quickly. They have minimal compaction but require more irrigation and fertilization than native soils, are usually more expensive to build, and may be unstable until a mature root zone is established.
Minimum Drainage Requirements
For many high school and local municipal fields, surface contouring is the most effective and economical means of assuring surface drainage. Insufficient sloping of the surface causes water to stand (puddle) and saturate the soil. The field can become easily compacted and damaged by traffic. To provide surface drainage, high school football fields should have a 12 in. crown for sandy soils and 18 in. for clay soils from center to the sideline or a 1% to 2% slope. Slope at the sideline can be reduced, although the area should not be flat. Surface water movement away from the areas where players stand is important to prevent puddling.
A minimum of four drainage tile lines should be installed, with one running parallel to the center crown and typically down each hash mark, and the other set just off the field along each sideline. Drain lines are usually 6 in. wide and 12 to 36 in. deep. Two inches of gravel are placed at the bottom of the lines; a 4 in. perforated drain tile (pipe) laid on top of this gravel layer; and pea gravel (¼ to ½ in.) or coarse sand fills the trench to grade. The tile should not be laid within 4 in. of the surface to prevent disruption from future aerifications. The tiles are laid on a continued ½% to 1% slope and are connected at their ends to allow for water to drain away from the field. Surface catch basins (or culverts) should be installed between the playing field and both sidelines (stands). These basins intercept surface drainage from the field as well as water draining from the spectator stands. At least three (preferably four or more) catch basins should be considered for each side of the field. Similar drainage schemes can be developed for soccer, baseball, or other types of sports fields. A contractor should be consulted before constructing a baseball field because of the complexity involved with removing water from the infields without flooding the dugout areas (Figure 3).
Figure 2. High-capacity football fields are constructed with a sand base to have good internal drainage. Proper construction with drain lines allows for a flatter field.
Source: Grady Miller
Figure 3. Clay areas of baseball fields require proper grading in relation to the turfgrass surfaces.
Source: Grady Miller
Establishing a New Field
Site Preparation
Proper preparation prior to planting is critical for establishing a quality turf. Preparation will determine how quickly the grass becomes established and its requirements for long-term maintenance. Soil should be prepared if you are planting a new field or replanting an old one, and if you are seeding or propagating vegetatively. The following steps provide a general guideline for preparing an area for planting a sports field.
- Clean and Rough Grade. Remove all construction debris, brush, large roots, rocks, weeds, and old tree stumps. If extensive grading is needed, remove and stockpile the topsoil for replacement after the rough grade is established. The site should be crowned 1% to 25% (½ to 1 ft fall per 50 ft) toward the sidelines. The rough grade should conform to the final grade after the topsoil is replaced (Figure 4). Poorly-drained soil may require the installation of drainage lines in a trench with at least a 1% fall for drainage. Seek professional advice if you are uncertain about the type and installation procedures. Control perennial weeds during site preparation. Several applications of a nonselective herbicide such as glyphosate (Roundup Pro) plus fluazifop (Fusilade II) may be necessary for complete weed control. Hard-to-control weeds may require the services of a professional.
- Soil Analysis. A soil analysis should be taken before planting. A representative soil sample can be submitted to the North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Soils Laboratory or a private laboratory. (Testing is free to North Carolina residents except during peak season (December 1 through March 31) when there is a $4 fee.) A soil test will determine the pH value and will indicate if pH adjustment is necessary. The desired range of soil pH for bermudagrass is 6.0 to 6.5. Values below 5.0 and above 7.0 can restrict rooting and specific nutrient availability. If the soil is too acidic (pH too low), dolomitic limestone (dolomite) can increase the soil pH. Application should be based on a lime requirement that considers both the soil buffering capacity and soil pH value. In lieu of a lime requirement analysis, the application of 1 ton of dolomite per acre or 50 lb per 1,000 sq ft is sufficient to increase the pH of most sandy soils one pH unit, such as from pH 5.0 to 6.0. For clay soils, 100 lb per 1,000 sq ft may be necessary. Turf grown on alkaline soils (pH levels greater than 7.0) often displays deficiencies in minor nutrients such as iron and manganese. Further details on soil pH adjustment can be obtained from the Cooperative Extension center in your county.
Based on the soil test analysis, fertilizer should be applied to correct nutrient level deficiencies in the soil. If the phosphorus is deficient, a fertilizer high in phosphorus (such as 0–20–0) should be added before planting. Potassium also should be added, as needed, before planting. A starter fertilizer (fertilizer with higher P content than the other nutrients) should be used at the time of establishment with vegetative plantings, but delayed until after germination if the area is seeded. Apply a fertilizer based primarily on soil test results and local product availability. A general recommendation is to use a turf-type fertilizer in 4:1:2 or 3:1:2 ratios (for example 16-4-8 or 18-6-12) with micronutrients. Apply at a rate of 1 lb soluble nitrogen per 1,000 sq ft. - Installation of Irrigation Equipment. The irrigation system should be designed by an irrigation specialist and installed according to design specifications. A poorly designed or improperly installed system will never operate satisfactorily because of incorrect irrigation heads, nozzles, pressure, and distribution, as well as leaks. The operation must be consistent with sound principles of turfgrass culture.
Working with Clay Soils
Sand can be added to improve the physical properties of heavy clay soils. However, enormous amounts are typically necessary for a positive response. In piedmont clay soil, up to 90% sand is required to make significant improvement in desirable soil characteristics such as drainage and air exchange. The sand should also contain at least 75% medium-sized particles to improve soil aeration and drainage. Unless enormous amounts of sand are provided, fields of clay soil are better off not being amended with sand. In lieu of sand, an organic material such as peat or mature compost may be incorporated prior to planting. In some situations, a drier surface may be obtained with a 3 to 6 in. sand cap after construction.
Fertilization and Liming
Apply the amounts of fertilizer and lime recommended by the soil test and work these into the upper 4 in. to 6 in. of soil. A general starter-type fertilizer that contains higher amounts of phosphorus is needed for establishing turfgrass seedlings, while a slow-release nitrogen source is recommended before planting.
Deep Tillage
Rototilling loosens compacted soil and improves the speed and depth of rooting. If soil amendments, lime, or a basic fertilizer have been added, it will be necessary to till the soil as deeply as possible, preferably 6 to 8 in. A tractor-mounted or self-propelled rotary tiller will do an adequate job of tilling the soil, especially if used in several directions before planting.
Final Grading
Final grading just before planting provides a smooth planting bed. The site can be hand raked and dragged with a hand-pulled drag such as a brush attachment or metal door mat. Large areas can be smoothed by tractor-drawn laser equipment with a power rake or grading box. Soil particles should be no larger than a golf ball, and smaller is even better. To achieve a uniformly firm planting bed and reduce erosion, compress loose soil with a water ballast roller. Take care not to add too much weight, which will cause soil compaction. Grass cannot develop a root system in eroded or bulldozed soil, which becomes extremely hard and compacted. Irrigation can settle the soil before planting. Hand raking to break up a crusty surface may also be necessary before seeding.
Seeding
Seeding is normally less expensive compared to vegetative planting methods. However, the time for establishing seeding generally exceeds the time from vegetative means, and the area may be more prone to erosion and weed invasion. A general guide for seeding bermudagrass is to apply 1 to 2 lb of seed per 1,000 sq ft (or 45 to 90 lb per acre). Higher seeding rates usually result in weakened stands as inter-competition among seedlings becomes excessive and seedlings become spindly and weak. Turfgrass seeds are planted with either a mechanical seeder (also called a slit seeder), gravity flow drop seeder, rotary (or centrifugal) spreader, or hydroseeder. After planting, seeds are lightly incorporated into the top ¼ in. of the seedbed, which is then firmed with a roller. Mechanical or slit seeders make a small furrow, drop seed into this furrow, cover the seed with approximately ¼ in. of root zone mix, and firm the seedbed by rolling.
Bermudagrass is normally seeded in late spring or early summer when soil temperatures are between 70° and 80°F. Earlier seeding of bermudagrass delays its germination until soil temperatures reach the required germination range and may lose some of its viability. Planting too late may not allow sufficient plant maturity before cooler fall temperatures and shorter daylight days slow growth.
Sprigging
Sprigging is the process of broadcast planting bermudagrass stems (rhizomes and stolons, or sprigs). The sprigs can also be planted in narrow spaced furrows. Sprigs have little to no soil. Sprigging is the most economical means of vegetative turfgrass establishment. The best survival occurs by planting sprigs within 48 hours of harvest. Sprigs should be watered immediately after planting, and then watered several times daily for several weeks until the turfgrass establishes a root system. Do not sprig more areas than can be watered immediately. Generally, turfgrass sprigs will become established within 6 to 10 weeks after planting. The length of time for establishment depends on the sprigging rate, time of the year planted, and maintenance practices that are implemented after planting. A typical sprigging rate is 400 to 800 bushels per acre.
Broadcast sprigging involves spreading sprigs over the area (like mulch) either by hand or by specialized mechanical equipment. After spreading, sprigs are then cut (or pressed) into the soil with a light disc, covered with ½ in. of topdressing, and then rolled to firm the seedbed to ensure sprig-to-soil contact. Sprigs are then watered immediately. This method of sprigging provides very fast coverage and establishment of the turfgrass. However, sprigs are planted at a shallow depth, and they are susceptible to drying. Light, frequent irrigation (four to six times daily) should be provided until the turfgrass roots become established in two to four weeks.
Sodding
Sodding provides instant grassing and excellent soil erosion control. However, sodding is initially more expensive and can introduce different soil types or pests such as nematodes, weeds, or fire ants from the harvested field into the root zone. At a minimum, sodding should be used for areas prone to soil erosion, such as steep slopes and areas around culverts and irrigation heads.
Before installing sod, water the seedbed. The sod should be installed quickly and preferably within 48 hours after harvest. Edges of the sod should butt against each other tightly without stretching. Avoid gaps or overlaps by using a machete or sharp knife to trim around corners and edges. Joints between the sod should be staggered in a brick-like fashion so that none of the edges of adjacent pieces of sod are parallel (Figure 5). After installation, the sod should be rolled to ensure evenness and smoothness and immediately watered heavily to wet the entire depth of the sod and top portion of the rootzone. Topdressing should be used to fill seams and low pieces and conserve moisture. Sodding produces an almost instant green turf, but it should be allowed to knit-down (or root) before being subjected to traffic and play. Four weeks is generally the minimum time necessary for this process during periods of active turfgrass growth and longer when the turfgrass is not growing actively. Sod should not be able to be lifted if it is fully rooted.
Figure 4. A smaller laser-guided dozer used to spread soil mix. Note use of silt fence and plywood to protect sub-surface layers.
Source: Grady Miller
Figure 5. Installation of turfgrass sod on football field
Source: Grady Miller
Caring for a New Field
Irrigation
Proper watering is critical during the first several weeks after turfgrass planting. To prevent drying, keep the top 1½ in. of the soil moist. This may require light watering two or three times a day for 7 to 30 days. As the seedlings grow and root, water less frequently but for longer periods. Do not decrease water as soon as the seedlings appear. Continue watering until the seedlings emerge. After the third mowing, water to a depth of 6 to 8 in. about once a week or as needed. Establishing turfgrass with sprigging or plugging requires constant moisture because there is no soil with these vegetative materials. In contrast, sod requires the least amount of water because sod contains some moisture. Frequent watering should continue for two to three weeks to maintain a moist soil surface for the vegetative plantings until establishment occurs.
Fertilization
Proper fertilization is essential for plant growth and development after seed germination. Prior to planting, a starter fertilizer with a 1-2-2 ratio of N-P-K (such as 5-10-10 or equivalent) should be incorporated into the soil mix. The nitrogen source should be slow release and applied at the equivalent of 1 lb N/1,000 sq ft. This should provide between 1½ to 2 lb P per 1,000 sq ft. After planting, the new seedlings should be fertilized approximately two to four weeks after seeding, or as a general rule, after the second mowing. A complete fertilizer (one which contains N-P-K nutrients) that is designed specifically for use on turfgrass should be applied at an equivalent rate of 1 lb of nitrogen per 1,000 sq ft of turfgrass. For bermudagrass sprigs, 1 lb N per 1,000 sq ft applied every 7 to 10 days provides the quickest establishment. With bermudagrass, a quick release fertilizer such as ammonium sulfate (21-0-0) or urea (45-0-0) should be alternated with a 1-2-2 ratio fertilizer, such as 5-10-10, or equivalent. If additional color is needed or if growth slows, you can supplement these fertilizations with a liquid nitrogen application at a rate of 1/5 lb nitrogen per 1,000 sq ft. Potassium and phosphorus should be added with each alternate nitrogen application in a balanced ratio until establishment.
Mowing
Begin mowing as soon as the grass is 50% higher than the desired height. A common mistake with mowing is waiting too long to mow the first time after planting. Proper mowing promotes lateral growth and plant maturity. Mowing of the newly established turfgrasses should begin as soon as the ground will support a mower. Mow fields when the bermudagrass reaches 1¼ to 1½ in., then reduce the height over time as the turfgrass becomes established. It is imperative to use sharp blades to prevent turfgrass seedlings from being torn or pulled up during mowing. The best-quality cut can be achieved with a reel mower. However, a well-adjusted rotary mower, with sharpened, balanced blades, can provide an acceptable cut. Mow during midday when the turfgrass is dry. Turfgrass clippings should be returned to the soil surface for the first couple of mowings to promote rooting of any stolons, which may have been cut during mowing.
Pest Management
When establishing new turfgrass areas, pest problems such as diseases, insects, and weeds must be controlled. This is best accomplished with a preventive pest management strategy coupled with routine pest monitoring.
Irrigation or watering is required to achieve seed germination and turfgrass establishment. However, excessive irrigation can contribute to problems with disease. Most fungal pathogens require free water or very high humidity in order to infect a turfgrass plant. Irrigating in the evening before the dew forms or in the morning after dew evaporates extends the duration of leaf wetness and increases the risk of disease outbreaks. Turfgrass seedlings, therefore, should be watered when dew or moisture are already present, such as in the predawn hours. If irrigation must be applied several times per day, ensure that the leaves dry completely in between applications to avoid constant leaf wetness that will stimulate the development of foliar diseases.
Vegetative planting operations disturb the soil, which can promote germination and establishment of weeds during grow-in. In addition, an ample supply of moisture and fertilizer provides optimum growing conditions for weeds. Preemergence control of annual grass weeds such as crabgrass and goosegrass without impeding new turfgrass growth can be achieved by applying a herbicide that contains oxadiazon (Ronstar). Research has shown that, when weeds are present, bermudagrass can be established more quickly with the use of oxadiazon. Oxadiazon products should be applied before or immediately after vegetative planting at the recommended use rate on the label. Postemergence control of grassy weeds in bermudagrass is obtained by using quinclorac (Drive). Normally, six to eight weeks are required after turf seed germination before this product can be used safely. Postemergence control of seedling broadleaf weeds requires light rates of 2,4-D alone or mixed with MCPP, 2,4-DP, MCPA, or dicamba. Trifloxysulfuron (Monument), bentazon (Basagran T/O), or halosulfuron (Sedgehammer) help control nutsedges.
Hand pulling or “roguing” is acceptable when only a few weeds are present. However, if many weeds emerge, the use of selective postemergence herbicides may be required. Consult herbicide labels for guidelines for applying during establishment.
Topdressing and Rolling
Frequent topdressing during turfgrass establishment with vegetative planting is recommended to achieve a smooth playing surface and enhance turfgrass establishment. The topdressing amount and frequency depend on the existing smoothness of the surface. A light rate of 0.5 to 0.7 cu ft per 1,000 sq ft is a good starting point. Topdressing should begin four to six weeks after seeding and three to four weeks after sprigging. Topdressing serves as a covering for vegetatively planted sprigs, stolons, or plugs, and also enhances their establishment. Sodded areas should also be rolled throughout the grow-in period to push roots into the soil. This will help to settle or firm the rootzone and smooth the surface to prevent mower scalping.
Irrigation Systems
Modern sports fields should have in-ground irrigation systems installed during construction. Most fields use pop-up sprinkler heads or “big-gun” irrigation heads that will not interfere with the sporting events (Figure 6). Irrigation systems in the summer should be able to deliver at least ½ in. of water within a reasonable period of time (1 to 2 hours). In the absence of rainfall, most sports fields require 1 to 1½ in of water per week during peak summertime use. In general, deeper and less frequent irrigation encourages the deep rooting and plant health that enables turfgrasses to withstand stresses, including the stresses of play. The ideal time to irrigate is early morning. A soil probe should be used to monitor soil moisture depth and uniformity.
Figure 6. Irrigation of newly installed turfgrass. The use of “big gun” irrigation provides quick coverage and removes heads from the playing surface.
Source: Grady Miller
Maintaining an Established Field
Irrigating
Improper irrigation results in wasted water, added cost, and unhealthy plants. General watering recommendations include:
- Water in early morning whenever possible. This is the preferred time because it reduces the risk of disease, water loss through evaporation, and improper water distribution. In addition, the demand for water by industry and municipalities is usually low at this time.
- Water established fields to a depth of 6 to 8 in. to encourage deep rooting. Usually, 1 in. of water per week is adequate. Ideally, this would not be applied in one application. Applying ½ in. of water every three to four days is usually adequate.
- Use cans or a rain gauge to determine how much water is being delivered during a certain period of time. It requires 640 gal of water to apply 1 in. of water per 1,000 sq. ft. Because clay soils accept water slowly, water should be measured to prevent wasteful runoff. Water clay soils until runoff is about to occur. Wait 30 minutes for the water to be absorbed. Then apply more water until the desired depth or amount is achieved. This same technique can be used on compacted soils. Adjust any automatic irrigation system to supplement rainfall so that the field is not over-watered. Use a rain shut-off device on your irrigation system.
Take precautions if you do not plan to irrigate throughout the summer. Slowly ease a lush, actively growing field into dormancy. This can be accomplished by allowing the drought stress symptoms to appear between infrequent irrigation cycles, by mowing high (1½ to 2 in.), and by not over-fertilizing with nitrogen. Do not be alarmed by brown, withered leaves, which are normal signs of dormancy. A field that is conditioned for this stress and has a reasonable level of maintenance should survive without permanent damage. Most turfgrasses can withstand three to six weeks (or longer) without rainwater or irrigation and show minimal or no damage, depending on the situation. In the absence of rain, water dormant fields with a minimal amount (about ¼ in.) every three weeks to keep the growing points hydrated.
Mowing
Bermudagrass performs best when mowed at ½ to 1 in. using a reel mower (Figure 7). However, good performance can be achieved with a rotary mower with sharp blades that are set as low as possible without scalping. Uneven ground can make mowing below 1 in. difficult. For this reason, a 1 to 1½ in. mowing height is recommended when using a rotary mower. For best results, bermudagrass should be mowed at least twice per week, especially at the lower mowing heights.
- Keep the mower blades sharp and balanced. The cleanest cut and best mowing are obtained with sharp mower blades. Dull mower blades reduce turf quality by tearing instead of cleanly cutting the grass. Tearing creates ragged leaf ends that quickly wither and bleach and then become easy ports of entry for disease. Using a sharp mower is especially important for a high-quality athletic field. A properly sharpened and balanced mower blade will also reduce mower vibration, lengthen mower life, and reduce fuel consumption by as much as 22%.
- Mow at the proper height. The frequency of mowing is determined by the desired grass height and the amount of growth, which depend on temperature, fertility, moisture conditions, season, and the natural growth rate of the grass. In most cases, this may be twice weekly and weekly mowing. To maintain a high-quality field, turfgrass should be cut so that less than 33% of the leaf surface is removed with each mowing. If the turf grows too high during wet seasons, raise the mower and cut ¼ to ½ of the present growth. Then, lower the mower to its proper height and mow again in a day or two.
- Leave clippings to decompose when they are short. Clippings that remain on the field quickly decompose and release valuable nutrients that can reduce fertilizer use by 20% to 30%. Remove excessive clippings. In some cases, removal is preferred before game-preparation practices, such as lining a football field.
Fertilizing
A soil test should be conducted at least every two to three years to determine the amounts of lime, phosphorus, and potassium needed by your established field. Proper fertilizer rates and timing are essential for wear resistance, quick turfgrass recovery from traffic damage, and aesthetic considerations. A complete fertilizer with an N-P-K ratio of 4:1:2 or 4:1:3 (such as a 16-4-8 or 20-5-15) can be used in lieu of a soil test, although it is a poor substitute. Determine the amount of fertilizer, the ratio of nutrients or fertilizer elements, and time of application based on the grasses being grown.
A total of 5 to 7 lb of nitrogen per 1,000 sq. ft. per year is generally required for bermudagrass used for sports purposes. A general quick-release, less costly nitrogen source such as ammonium nitrate (33-0-0) or ammonium sulfate (21-0-0) can be used during normal summer fertilization to promote rapid growth and color response. Do not apply fertilizer to wet, dormant, or semi-dormant turf. This may cause leaf scorching and encourage nutrient leaching and weed infestation. The frequency of fertilization application depends on the nitrogen source. Quick-release nitrogen sources are applied more frequently at lower rates than slow-release nitrogen sources.
Many soils in North Carolina are acidic and will require the application of lime to provide a healthy growing medium. Soil pH should be between 6.0 and 6.5 for optimum nutrient availability. Lime may be applied any time during the year. Fertilizers and lime should be applied uniformly with a centrifugal (rotary) or drop-type spreader. Apply half the fertilizer in one direction and the other half moving at right angles to the first pass to ensure uniform coverage.
Coring (Aerification)
Soils that are subject to heavy traffic are prone to compaction, which is especially prevalent along player benches, between hash marks, along sidelines, and in front of the goals, where traffic is very heavy. Coring (removing a soil core ¾ to 1 in. in diameter to a depth of 3 to 4 in.) will alleviate the compaction. Core cultivation is one of the most important management practices needed for competitive playing fields, yet it is one of the least appreciated or implemented (Figure 8). Use a device that removes soil cores. Chop up the cores, and, if possible, distribute them by dragging them with a span of chain-link fence or a mat. Coring should be done when the turfgrass is actively growing so that it can recover from any injury. In general, fields should be cored a minimum of twice yearly, once in the spring (April or May), just before fertilization, and again in mid to late summer. For fields that are used for intensive practice and play, those that will be overseeded, or those constructed with a heavy soil profile, it is best to plan to core a minimum of three to four times per growing season. Begin in late April or early May and repeat monthly, or at least every other month, until cool fall temperatures halt bermudagrass growth or one month before the anticipated fall overseeding time. There are lawn care and landscape companies that offer coring service if you do not have the equipment available on site.
Verticutting
Bermudagrass tends to build up thatch when it is heavily fertilized and watered. When thatch exceeds ¾ in., the field should be verticut and cored. When not excessive, thatch buildup can be removed from bermudagrass by cutting as closely as possible at spring green-up and then raking debris by hand. If the field is heavily worn, verticutting may not be necessary, or necessary only in less-used areas of the field. Some lawn care and landscape companies have specialized equipment and offer power raking services.
Topdressing
Topdressing is a maintenance practice that helps control thatch and level (or smooth) out low spots or ruts in the playing surface. Topdressing (if affordable) should begin in early spring immediately after core aerification, vertical mowing, and fertilization. Routine topdressing rates may be up to ¼ in. in depth per application (approximately 34 cu yd per acre). Topdress with soil similar to the playing field profile to prevent the formation of layers. Use a pull-behind steel dragmat or brushes to incorporate the topdressing material into the turfgrass.
Figure 7. Using a reel mower to provide a superior quality playing surface and to stripe the field.
Source: Grady Miller
Figure 8. Regular aerification of fields is one of the most important management practices for maintaining quality sports fields
Source: Grady Miller
Overseeding
Overseeding sports fields in fall with ryegrass (a) provides desirable green color during fall, winter, and early spring months for spectators; and (b) helps to protect the bermudagrass from excessive wear during cooler months when the grass is not actively growing (Figure 9). Overseeding, however, is an expensive, time-consuming operation. Overseeded grasses are also very competitive during spring green-up. Such grasses slow the transition back to bermudagrass and often weaken the stand. Overseeding also encourages the buildup of winter grassy weeds such as annual bluegrass (Poa annua).
Overseeding Timing
Plan to overseed when daytime temperatures in late summer or early fall consistently fall into the 70s F. This usually is late September for the piedmont and mountain regions to mid-October for the coastal areas. Where field use is extremely heavy, it may be necessary to overseed when there is a break in the event schedule. In these cases, it is best to schedule overseeding earlier in the season to provide opportunities to apply more seed later as necessary.
Grasses Used in Overseeding
Perennial ryegrass is the best choice for most athletic fields. Perennial ryegrass is known for fast germination, finer leaf texture, darker green color, seedling vigor, thicker growth, and better disease and traffic resistance compared to annual ryegrass. Perennial ryegrass seed costs more than annual ryegrass, but the cost is well worth the investment when a high-quality playing surface is desired.
Seeding
One month before overseeding, core aerify in several directions to help relieve soil compaction. One to two days before overseeding, drop the mowing height by ½ in., and mow the area in two directions to open the turfgrass canopy to ensure good seed-to-soil contact. Remove thatch as necessary before seeding.
Apply seed at a rate of 6 to 15 lb per 1,000 sq feet (or 260 to 650 lb per acre), depending on desired appearance. Budget restraints may require that lower rates be used but that should not be less than 6 lb per 1,000 sq ft. Seed in two directions (at right angles) and go over the area with a dragmat to work the seed into the soil. Irrigate the field frequently enough (two to four times per day) to promote seed germination. One-eighth inch per application is sufficient at this time. As seedlings emerge, reduce watering to one time daily but increase the amount and eventually reduce watering to an as-needed basis (approximately once or twice per week). Reducing irrigation frequency will encourage deep rooting, while discouraging disease development. Mow the overseeded ryegrass about two weeks after planting to a 1 in. height after it reaches 1½ to 2 in. Use a sharpened mower blade to avoid excessive shearing of the young, tender seedlings. Mowing frequency is weekly in winter but may be required twice per week in spring, when active growth resumes.
Do not fertilize with excessive nitrogen just prior to or during the overseeding process because this may encourage excessive late-season bermudagrass competition. Adequate levels of phosphorus and potassium, however, should be maintained during this period for good plant growth. Normally, ¼ to ½ lb of nitrogen per 1,000 sq ft every three to four weeks with a soluble nitrogen source is adequate to promote desired growth and color without overstimulating growth and encouraging disease. Traffic during overseed establishment should be kept to a minimum whenever possible.
Spring Transition
The main objective in spring is a gradual, smooth transition from overseeded grasses back to bermudagrass. Dormant bermudagrass shows signs of green-up when soil temperatures reach approximately 60°F. During transition, overseeded turfgrasses become very sensitive to management practices designed to encourage bermudagrass recovery. The three ways to promote a desirable spring transition are proper timing of management practices, gradual reduction in mowing height, and a corresponding increase in nitrogen fertilization. To hasten transition, use selective herbicides such as metsulfuron (MSM), trifloxysulfuron (Monument), foramsulfuron (Revolver), and flazasulfuron (Katana).
Turf Colorants and Paints
Using turf colorants rather than overseeding is an aesthetic alternative for fields that host only limited play. Appropriate dilution rates, mixing, and uniform application are critical for successful painting of fields. Those who are inexperienced with painting should experiment on a non-overseeded practice field in order to perfect the technique before painting the playing field. Information related to turf colorant selection and use can be found in Extension publication AG-843 Guide to Using Turf Colorants. Specialty paints for athletic fields are highly recommended for desired quality and limited long-term negative effects on the turfgrass when used at appropriate rates (Figure 10).
Figure 9. Overseeding bermudagrass field with ryegrass is performed primarily to provide green color during the winter and spring.
Source: Grady Miller
Figure 10. Painting a logo on a field in preparation for a game. Only paints formulated for use on turfgrass should be used to minimize damage to the turf
Source: Grady Miller
Integrated Pest Management
Everyone has become more aware and concerned about the effects of chemicals on our environment. Research indicates that pesticide use poses a minimal threat to the health of humans, animals, and the environment when used appropriately. However, since we cannot be certain, many individuals choose to avoid pesticides. How would you handle a pest problem that is destroying the appearance of your field? Do you use pesticides, change cultural practices, or both?
The balanced use of all available control methods is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The idea is simple. All available prevention and control methods keep pests from reaching damaging levels. Pesticides are used only when necessary.
Planting the best-adapted grass and then watering, mowing, and fertilizing properly are the foundation of integrated pest management. Keeping the turf healthy enables it to tolerate low levels of pests and makes the area a good habitat for beneficial organisms that help control pests.
When chemical control is necessary, select the safest effective pesticide and follow label recommendations carefully. Chemicals should be applied when the pest is most susceptible. Treat only those areas in need, and view pesticides as one of many tools available in turf care. Integrated pest management can be successful, but time and labor are required. High expectations may not be met when the pest pressures and environmental conditions are severe.
For specific weed, insect, and disease identification and control recommendations, refer to the Extension publications Turf Pest Management Manual and the current Pest Control for Professional Turfgrass Managers. Alternatively, most of this information is available on the NC State Extension TurfFiles website.
Weeds
Weeds do not kill healthy turfgrass but appear when turf density and competitiveness decrease. With the extensive damage from traffic on sports fields, weeds can become established, and control measures are usually necessary.
Insects
Several insects can infest sports turf including mole crickets, white grubs, fire ants, armyworms, and sod webworms. Cultural practices such as overfertilizing with soluble fertilizers, irregular mowing, overwatering, and thatch build-up encourage lush succulent growth that can lead to insect damage. Check the turfgrass area weekly for insect damage. Conduct further examination for sod webworms, armyworms (infestations always start along the edge of the field), and mole crickets by doing a soap flush that is based on insect life cycles. Mix 1 fluid oz of dishwashing soap in a 2-gal sprinkling can full of water and drench a 2 sq ft area. Observe the area for several minutes and watch for insects to emerge. (The one exception is white grubs.) Follow the management guidelines in the Turf Pest Management Manual to reduce these problems.
Diseases
Very few diseases pose a serious threat to athletic fields when you follow proper turfgrass management practices. However, spring dead spot, which is caused by the soil-dwelling fungus Ophiosphaerella korrae, is a disease that can cause severe damage to bermudagrass athletic fields in North Carolina. Symptoms of spring dead spot appear in the spring as circular patches or rings, from 6 in. to several feet in diameter, that remain dormant as the surrounding turf greens-up (Figure 11). The affected turf is completely dead and eventually collapses as sunken depressions that severely detract from the safety and playability of an athletic field. Since the diseased turf is completely dead, recovery from spring dead spot is very slow and may take the entire summer in severe cases.
Fungicides can prevent spring dead spot development. Products with mefentrifluconazone (Maxtima), and isofetamid (Kabuto) have been the most effective but must be applied preventatively in the fall before the onset of winter dormancy. These preventive applications should be watered immediately with ⅛ in. of irrigation to ensure that the fungicide moves into the soil where the pathogen is active. Curative fungicide applications and those made in the spring after the appearance of symptoms have not shown any benefit against spring dead spot.
Since fungicide treatments for spring dead spot can be expensive and are not feasible in many situations, cultural practices are often the only practical means for managing the disease. Bermudagrass varieties that have improved cold tolerance, such as IronCutter, Latitude 36, Northbridge, Tahoma 31, Patriot, Riviera, and Yukon, have some resistance to spring dead spot and are generally affected by the disease less severely. Follow the guidelines for fertilization, irrigation, and cultivation presented here, because spring dead spot is enhanced by excessive fertilization, heavy thatch accumulation, soil compaction, and overirrigation. Regular spiking or aerification to break up the layer of thatch and dead turf that is left behind can facilitate recovery from spring dead spot damage. In addition, avoid the use of dinitroaniline (DNA) herbicides in the spring for pre-emergent control of annual grasses because these products can slow bermudagrass recovery by preventing new root development.
“Damping off” is a seedling disease that attacks perennial ryegrass overseedings during their establishment. This disease is caused by a variety of Pythium and Rhizoctonia species that infect the foliage or roots of the developing seedling. Prudent watering practices are an important first line of defense because constant leaf wetness or soil saturation is necessary for the disease development. Preventive fungicides are often beneficial during periods of warm weather with high humidity or heavy rains. If a disease problem is suspected, submit a sample to the North Carolina State Turf Diagnostics Lab through your local Cooperative Extension agent in your county to determine a diagnosis and effective management strategy.
Figure 11. Spring dead spot disease on surrounding areas of a football field.
Source: Grady Miller
Renovating Damaged Areas
Due to extensive play or winter injury, bermudagrass sports fields may require replanting (or renovating) to achieve an acceptable turfgrass cover. If large areas are dead, sprigging is the most cost-effective method of reestablishment. If small areas are damaged, plugging can be a good method. Sodding is the quickest way to make a field ready for play. Late April and May are the preferred times for planting bermudagrass. To maintain consistency, use planting stock from the exact location where the original grass was obtained.
Management Calendars
Burmudagrass (not overseeded)
| Management Practice | JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | MAY | JUN | JUL | AUG | SEP | OCT | NOV | DEC |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nitrogen Fertilization (lb/1000 sq ft) | 1 *include P and K based on soil test | 1 | If needed | 1 | If needed | 1 | ||||||
| Preemergence weed control | Preemergence for summer weeds | Pre- if split apps | Pre- for winter weeds | Atrazine or Simazine for pre and early post control | Atrazine or Simazine for pre and early post control | |||||||
| Postemergence weed control | Glyphosate at 1 pt/acre, dormant turf only | as needed | as needed | as needed | as needed | as needed | post control | post control | ||||
| Insect control | Scout for white grubs, mole cricket, fire ants – treat as needed | Scout for fall armyworms and fire ants—treat as needed | ||||||||||
| Disease control (as needed) | Treat if previous Spring Dead Spot | |||||||||||
| Irrigation in absence of rainfall (in./week) | ≤ ½ (where needed) | ≤ ½ (where needed) | ≤½ | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤2 | ≤2 | ≤2 | ≤1 | ≤ ½ | ≤ ½ (where needed) | ≤ ½ (where needed) |
| Aerification/Topdress | Core aeration (topdress optional) | Core aeration (topdress optional) | Core aeration (topdress optional) | |||||||||
| Mowings per week | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Vertical mowing | X | X | ||||||||||
Bermudagrass (overseeded with ryegrass)
| Management Practice | JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | MAY | JUN | JUL | AUG | SEP | OCT | NOV | DEC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fertilization (N per 1000 sq ft) | ½ | ½ | ½ | 1* include P and K based on soil test | 1 | If needed | 1 | ½ to 1 lb using complete fertilizer | ½ | ||||
| Preemergence weed control | Apply Preemergence for summer weeds | Pre- if split apps | |||||||||||
| Postemergence weed control | as needed | Ryegrass removal | as needed | as needed | as needed | as needed | as needed | ||||||
| Insect control | Scout for white grubs, mole cricket, fire ants – treat as needed | Scout for fall armyworms and fire ants—treat as needed | |||||||||||
| Disease control | If weather warrants | on young seedlings | If weather warrants | ||||||||||
| Irrigation (in absence of rainfall) in./week | ≤½ | ≤½ | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤2 | ≤2 | ≤2 | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤½ | ≤½ | |
| Aerification/Topdress | Core aeration (topdress optional) | Core aeration (topdress optional) | Core aeration (topdress optional) | spike | |||||||||
| Mowings per week | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
| Seeding | Overseed (70°F) | ||||||||||||
Management Summary by Practice
| Practice | Recommendations |
|---|---|
| Fertilization | Contact your local Cooperative Extension agent about conducting a routine soil test in the spring each year for phosphorus, potassium, and lime recommendations. Proper fertilization rates and timing are essential for wear resistance and quick turfgrass recovery from traffic damage. Once established, a total of 5 to 9 lb of nitrogen and 3 to 5 lb of potassium per 1,000 sq ft per year is generally required for bermudagrasses used for sports purposes, depending on if they are overseeded and the amount of play they receive. If there is extreme wear, heavy rainfall, and sand-based rootzone, the fertility program should be supplemented with two to three applications of ¾ lb N per one thousand sq ft with a soluble source of nitrogen (such as urea, ammonium sulfate, or ammonium nitrate) to aid in bermudagrass recovery. Slow release or controlled released products are excellent if your budget allows. |
| Weed control |
The first line of defense against weeds is a good, healthy stand of turf. But with an actively used athletic field, that is often not enough, which means that chemical control might be necessary. Controlling traffic so that you do not have bare areas is a great help. Remember, always read label precautions and always follow label directions on chemicals applied to turf. Be sure the sprayer or spreader is properly calibrated. For specific products and timings, refer to the calendar outlined in Table 2 of this publication. Additional products are suitable for use. For a more complete list, refer to the Pest Control Recommendation Guide that can be found at the NC State Extension TurfFiles website. |
| Insect control |
There is little that can be done for the preventive control of insects on athletic fields. The insecticide must come in contact with the insect in sufficient concentration for control (there must be a population present to control). Several chemicals can be used on athletic fields that are effective for controlling a number of common turf insects. Products may be available in different formulations (granular or liquid) to suit your application needs. Several products are available as granular bait or attached to a fertilizer carrier and applied dry. Granules are ready-made insecticides that you apply dry. You can spread the granules with either a rotary (centrifugal) or drop (gravity) spreader. Check labels for application directions and precautions. This is a period of rapid change in insecticide product development. For a complete list of current products, refer to the Pest Control Recommendation Guide that can be found at the NC State Extension TurfFiles website. |
| Disease control |
Grasses that receive good irrigation, mowing, and fertilization practices are less susceptible to turf diseases. Due to the expense of fungicides, an athletic field turf manager may want to approach disease control on a curative basis (rather than a preventive basis) unless they have had a history of disease incidence. The exception may be with overseeded grasses. Due to warm, humid weather in the fall and winter, a more proactive approach may be warranted. Many fungicides are broad spectrum in nature, and labels should be checked for the targeted pathogen before application. The Pest Control Recommendation Guide found at the NC State Extension TurfFiles website is an excellent resource to use in selecting the appropriate product. An initial disease diagnosis may be necessary. Contact your local Cooperative Extension office. Alternatively, diagnosis of turfgrass diseases is available for a minimal charge from the NC State University Turf Diagnostics Lab. |
| Irrigation | Supplemental irrigation is necessary to maintain a desirable playing surface. During the spring and summer (in the absence of rain), irrigation will be necessary a minimum of one to two times weekly. The general guidelines provided in the calendar represent estimations based on long-term weather patterns. Adjust the irrigation needs as appropriate for the current conditions. Do not irrigate between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. to promote water conservation and follow local ordinances. Be aware that more rigorous water restrictions may be imposed by water purveyors, the city, or the county. |
| Aerification/Topdress | Fields should be aerified and cores removed a minimum of three times yearly, once in the spring (April or May), in mid-summer, and then in fall. This relieves compaction, allows better soil-oxygen penetration, and encourages deeper rooting. Cores can be redistributed with a dragmat. Topdressing is very useful to level out low spots in the playing surface. Topdressing should begin in early spring immediately after core aerification and fertilization. The topdressing sand should ideally be spread consistently and worked into the turf with a dragmat. A routine topdressing rate is ¼ in. in depth. Exercise care when choosing a topdressing material to meet your objectives such as drainage and water retention. |
| Slicing/Verticutting | Slicing can be used during the growing season to alleviate compaction and improve turf growth. Verticutting should only be done if the thatch is excessive, and only during the summer when the grass can rapidly recover. |
| Mowing | Proper mowing promotes deeper rooting and a more stress-tolerant plant. Mow often so that no more than one-third of the grass leaf is removed at one mowing. Highly maintained bermudagrass fields require two to three mowings weekly. A reel-type mower produces the finest cut, although rotary mowers can be used if the blades are sharp. Bermudagrass fields are normally mowed to a height of ¾ to 1½ in. An overseeded field should be mowed at a higher level (1 to 2½ in.). |
| Overseeding/Winter color | Overseeding provides fall and winter color and protects bermudagrass when it is dormant. Overseeding can add a significant expense to a maintenance budget so should not be performed unless time, effort, and money are allocated. Normal overseeding time is when the daytime temperatures are in the low 70s. This is usually mid-September to early November in North Carolina. Perennial ryegrass is the best choice. Annual or intermediate ryegrass may be used but expect lower quality, especially in the spring. A typical seeding rate for these grasses is 6 to 15 lb of seed per 1,000 sq ft (260 to 650 lb per acre), depending on desired appearance and budget constraints. In lieu of overseeding, turf colorants can be used for winter color. For more information, refer to the Guide to Using Turfgrass Colorants found at the NC State Extension TurfFiles website. |
For More Information
The following Extension publications about sports turf are available on the NC State Extension TurfFiles website.
Maximizing the Durability of Athletic Fields (AG-726)
Baseball Field: Layout and Construction (AG-725)
Edited by
Grady L. Miller, Crop and Soil Sciences Professor
Contributing Authors
Grady L. Miller, Professor and Extension Specialist, Crop and Soil Sciences
Matthew Martin, Extension Associate, Crop and Soil Sciences
Fred H. Yelverton, Professor and Extension Weed Specialist, Crop and Soil Sciences
James Kerns, Professor and Extension Pathology Specialist, Entomology and Plant Pathology
Ray McCauley, Extension Assistant, Crop and Soil Sciences
Publication date: Aug. 15, 2023
AG-746
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